EXPLORATION

Non-Europeans

• Ming explored Indian Ocean 1405-1433 but halted voyages and destroyed ships.

• Zheng He

• Then Muslims, Indians, Malays etc.

• Asian goods to Europe

• Pepper, ginger, cloves, nutmeg

• Ottomans took Constantinople 1453 (end of Byzantine Empire)

Technology

• Acquisition of technology from China and Muslim world helped Europeans expand seagoing capabilities

• Sternpost rudder, triangular lateen sails, magnetic compass, astrolabe.

Portugal

• Early leader

• Sugar plantations on islands in Atlantic off coast of Africa

• Prince Henry the Navigator

• Responsible for the early days of Portuguese Empire and age of Discoveries

• Third son of King John I of Portugal, founder of the Aviz dynasty

• Encouraged father to conquer Ceuta (Muslim port o N. African coast)

• Intrigued by Christian legend of Prester John

• Legendary Christian patriarch and king said to rule over a Christian nation lost amidst Muslims and pagans in the Orient.

• Descendant of Three Magi

• Patron of Portuguese exploration

• Sponsored voyages down coast of Africa (as far as Guinea)

• Once believed to have had a school of navigation

• He did employ some cartographers to chart the coast of Mauritania after the voyages he sent there, but no center of navigation science.

• First voyages

• Bartolomeu Dias (Portugal) 1488, around Cape of Good Hope

• Appointed by King John to find route to India and find lands ruled by Prester John.

• Columbus (Spain) 1492, to Bahamas, Caribbean

• Vasco da Gama (Portugal) 1497, to Calicut in India (later Goa established)

• Magellan (Spain) 1519-1522, to Philippines, circumnavigated globe

Spain

• Marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella ("Catholic Monarchs")

• Financed Christopher Columbus 1492

• Landed in Hispaniola, Taino Indians

• Explorers:

• Amerigo Vespucci: Map "America"

• Vasco Nunez de Balboa

• Juan Ponce de Leon

• Francisco Vazquez de Coronado

• Hernando de Soto

• Conquistadors

• Hernan Cortes -- Aztecs

• Francisco Pizarro -- Incas

• Missionary

• Bartolome de Las Casas

Economics

• Goal of exploration not to conquer but control trade

• Wanted to force merchant ships to trade in fortified trading sites and pay duties for privilege

• By mid 1500s Portugal had 50 trading posts, after that power declined

• English and Dutch: joint stock companies (rather than crown)

Columbian exchange

• From Old World: smallpox, wheat, sugarcane, cotton, horses, cattle, pigs, sheep, chickens

• From New World: Maize, potatoes, beans, tomatoes, peanuts avocados, tobacco

Silver

• Most abundant Americans precious metal

• Stimulated a truly global trade network

• Areas rich in silver

• Mexico

• And Potosi mines in Andes

• Employed large numbers of indigenous laborers

• Driven by China’s desire for silver

• Powered Spanish economy and stimulated world economy

• Used to trade for silk, porcelain in Asia

• Financed Spain’s powerful army and bureaucracy

Sugar

• Complex production of land, labor, buildings, animals, capital and technical skills

• Required heavy labor (for planting, harvesting) and specialized skills (sugar-making process)

• Because smallpox wiped out so many natives, imported Africans became the main labor force

• Worked under harsh conditions.

• Sugar plantations were proto-factories

• Financed and organized to create a single product in complex manufacturing proces in one area.

OTTOMAN, SAFAVID, MUGHAL

STATE BUILDING (1300s to 1923)

OTTOMAN EMPIRE

• Started as seminomadic Turks who migrated to Anatolia in 13th c.

• As Mongol’s power declined in Middle East, Ottomans replaced them as the dominant influence.

• Military might and gunpowder weapons

• Drove Ottomans to power.

• Janissaries

• Elite fighting force of slave troops, Christian boys, led the military powerhouse.

• 1453 captured Constantinople and ended long life of Byzantine Empire (Mehmed II)

• By 1566 ruled all of former eastern Roman Empire

• Social and political

• Granted great independence to the military aristocracy to which it owed its success.

• These nobles, granted conquered lands, eventually came to threaten the sultan’s power

• The Janissaries, (14th – 19th c.) infantry made up largely of onquered peoels, formed the new military core of the empire

• POLITICS

• Under sultans such as Mehmed II and Suleyman

• Tightly centralized absolute monarchy ruled

• Early sultans ruled directly, as poltical and military leaders

• Viziers

• Later, sultans rule through their viziers (CHANGE) and through manipulation of the powerful groups within the empire.

• As empire grew and the sultans became surrounded by ritual and luxury, the power of the viziers grew.

• Rulers

• Mehmed II

• Rebuilt and improved Constantinople.

• Suleyman

• Suleymaniya mosque built at the apex of Ottoman culture 1th c.

• City restored to its position at the point of commercial exhcnage between east and west.

• Merchant and artistans

• Were again central to the city’s culture

• Turkish language

• Became the official language of court and literature.

• Islamic religious scholars and legal experts

• Served administrative functions

• As empire more wealthy

• Sultans grew more distant and removed from running of the government

• Vizier

• Headed the bureaucracy

• Often had more control and power than the sultan

• Political succession

• Serious problem as succeeding sultans often have brothers executed to eliminate any challenge to their authority.

• Capital – Istanbul

• Hagia Sophia became mosque

• aqueducts, marketplace, rest houses, religious schools, hospitals

• large merchant and artisan class conducted business

• Commercial exchanges and handicraft production were closely regulated by the government.

• Sultan’s harem (private domain) influential

• Concubines, female relatives lived there, accorded status when they had sons.

• Members of harem – all very close to the sultan and wielded a lot of political power – often slave origin and non-Muslim (enslavement of Muslims forbidden)

• Trained in Quran, sewing, music.

• Sultan’s mother was sultan valide (queen mother) served as advisor to the throne, administered imperial household and engaged in diplomatic relations.

• Empire reached peak in mid 1600s

• Decline

• Effectiveness of administration declined and plagued by corruption

• Corruption among officials resulted

• Successor to the throne often lived sheltered lives and unequipped to rule

• Because of competition.

• As European military and naval technology outpaced theirs, the Ottomans ill-equipped to effectively compete

• As conquests ended, some of dynamism lost.

• Too large to maintain

• Oversight of vast empire hampered by poor communication

• Economically

• As Portuguese rounded Africa, they were able to bypass Ottoman control of the spice trade

• Silver from Latin America led to crippling inflation in the Ottoman Empire

SAFAVIDS

• Champions of Islam – embraced Shi’ism

• Struggles with Ottomans intensified by religious conflict.

• Shi’a followers called the Red Heads.

• Ismail named shah in 1501 – ed to war with Ottomans

• Great Safavid defeat at Chaldiran in 1514 didn’t end their power but stopped the spread of their emipire and Shi’ism.

• Shah Abbas the Great

• Brought the empire to its apogee.

• Built up slave regiments (like Ottomans COMP)

• Safavid ruers were of Turkic background like Ottomans COMP)

• But adopted Perian as the court language (CONTRAST)

• Worldly power buttressed by claims to be imams – successors of Ali (COMP)

• Used mullahs to add religious support for their rule.

• Abbas was major patron of craft and trade revival as well as arts

• Capital Isfahan – court dominated city ife. Maginificent mosques and royal tombs n city.

• COMPARE – Safavids shared cultural traits with Ottomans

• Nobiilty grew in power

• Exploitation of peasants increased.

• Shahs and sultans were important patrons of the arts and crafts.

• Women

• limited in both public roles and even in creative pursuits allowed to them in other cultures.

• Women of Turkic and Mongol backgrounds lost ground as their cultures were changed by contact with Arabic and Persian traditions.

• At courts in both empires, women could wield great power, though indirtly.

• Women could retain some control over inherited property

• Decline

• Despite Abbas’s achievements his empire was short-lived

• Weak successors easily manipulated,

• 1722 Nadir Khan Ashar usurped the throne inaugurating a period of unending conflict.

MUGHAL INDIA (1523-mid 1700s)

• Decentralized history of regional kingdoms

• Babur (Babar)

• interrupted by conquest of Babur and establishment of the Mughal empire

• Babur, a descendant of Turkic nomads, began his conquest of India in 1526

• COMPARE showed same leadership ability and cultivation of arts as Shah Abbas I and Sultan Mehmed II.

• His main goal of reclaiming his kingdom in central Asia was never achieved, but he managed to win much of northern India.

• Humayan – Babur’s son – abe successor

• Akbar

• Babur’s grandson (a minor at his succession)

• Strong military commander

• Interested in uniting his empire

• Created new religion called “Divine Faith” 1582 Din-I-Ilahicombining elements of Islam and Hinduism

• purpose – to promote religious unity – although also legitimized the ruler as head of state and head of religion

• Patronized arts and very interested in religious discussion

• Initiated policy of cooperation with Hindu rulers and Hindu population by encouraging intermarriage

• Abolished jizya

• promoted Hindus to high-ranking government jobs

• Comparison:

• Like Ottomans and Safavids

• He granted lands to his noble, yet left many Hindu rulers in place

• Social reforms

• Outlawed sati and tried to easE the seclusion of women

• Changed marriage customs to protect women

• Improved plight of urban poor

• Fell behind in the sciences

• Exports of textile industry

• Jahangir and Shah Jahan

• Also great patrons of the arts (CONT)

• Many of India’s finaest monuments date from their reign.

• Mughal architecture blended Persian and Indain traditions.

• But did little to buid on his achievements

• Under Mughals India fell behind in sciences

• Although exports of the textile industry remained important.

• Jahangir and Shah Jahan were much more devoted to pleasure than Akbar (CHANGE)

• Jahangir

• Wife Nur Jahan took power her husband neglected

• Her influence brought able men to court and was used to help charities

• Shah Jahan

• His wife Mumtaz Mahal

• Smaller role than Nur Jahan

• But tomb Taj Mahal is grandest in India

• Other Indian women

• Reforms did little to improve thei status.

• Art

• Painting workshops expanded, leading to creation of 1000s of exquisite miniatures.

• Mughal architecture blended Persian and Hindu traditions by using Islamic domes, arches and minarets along with Hindu ornamentation.

• Most famous: Taj Mahal, which Emperor Shah Jahan built as tomb for late wife.

• Aurangzeb

• Shah Jahan’s son

• Seized throne with a neglected and corrupt bureaucracy

• Pushed to extend Muslim control to the whole of India

• Able ruler

• Sought to rid India of all Hindu influences (bringing back jizya) and to purify India’s Islam

• Attack on position of Hindus more disruptive – overturned Akbar’s attempt to bring peace.

• His many wars drained the treasury, and peasant uprisings and revolts by both Muslim and Hindu princes weakened the empire.

• Although Mughal empire was large at his death, it was weakened by rivalries.

• Marrata risings

• Emergence of new sects added to the strain.

• Attacks on the Sikhs turned the Din-i-Ilahi sect from its original goal of blending Hindu and Muslim traditions, to a rigidly Hindu, anti-Muslim religion.

• Trade

• India became a major overseas destination for European traders who demanded cotton.

• With a weakened empire, those traders were able to increase their influence

COMPARISON

• Ottoman, Safavid, Mughal

• Common roots – all three emerged from groups of Turkic steppe nomads

• All carved out areas formerly controlled by Mongols through military might

• To consolidate their control ther new lands, the ruler f each awarded lands to their followers

• From the latter, a new landed, military aristocracy arose in all there areas

• Differences

• Differences in areas they conquered

• Attitudes of the conquerors towards other religions

• Abilities of successive rulers

EUROPE

RENAISSANCE

• Crusades had brought Europe in contact with Arab culture

• Renaissance (Beg. 1400s)

• Italy

• Petrarch – first European to typify the new spirit of Renaissance

• Italian Renaissance began 1300s, took shape 1400s.

• Humanism

• Looked to ancient Greece and Rome for inspiration.

• Focus on human artistic and intellectual endeavor

• Northern Renaissance

• Also spurred by merchant wealth

• Focused on perfection of man in Christian context

• Shakespeare and Rabelais

TECHNOLOGY

• Technology

• Printing press in 1400s

GEOGRAPHY

• Italy

• Da Vinci, Michelangelo etc

• Renaissance man

• Italy middle between Europe and Middle East

• Medici rich as merchants

• city-states, kingdoms

• German lands divided into 100s of small kingdoms

• Nominally ruled over by the Holy Roman Emperor (Charles V of Spain, staunch Catgolic)

• Germans resented having to support both an “emperor” who was not German and the Church.

• Sided with Luther – Protestants.

PROTESTANT REFORMATION

• Martin Luther, 95 Theses on Wittenberg Church 1517

• Against corruption in Roman Catholic Church (Indulgences)

• Lack of piety of priesthood (Pope Leo)

• Reformers promoted public education (Luther translating Bible, Calvinists)

• Changing role of family (Luther married nun)

• Thirty Years War (1618-1648)

• Catholics v. Protestants

• Devastated German lands.

• Sovereignty of the state became model for future nation-state relations.

• Protestant Reformation spread

• To Netherlands, Switzerland (Calvin), Scandinavia, France (Hugeunots),

• England – Henry VIII – created Church of England.

• Counterreformation

• Catholic Church reforms itself – Council of Trent

• Jesuits/Loyola (spread religion and educ. internationally), Baroque Art

• Persecution of Witches

• Fueled by fear and hatred by dispossessed poor.

SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION (17th, 18th c.)

• Copernicus -- Rediscovered heliocentrism revolutionizing the western view of the cosmos.

• Kepler’s planetary observations (elliptical orbit)

• Galileo used telescope

• Descartes and Newton = scientific approach to knowledge.

• Deism

ENLIGHTENMENT (Beg. 1700s)

• Centered in France (philosophes)

• John Locke (Br.)

• Thought all men born with natural rights and should be free

• Also “tabula rasa” – everything could be known through the sense with use of reason.

• Voltaire (Fr)

• Freedom of speech, against organized church (“ecrasez l’infame”)

• Montesquieu (Fr)

• Separation of powers (Executive, Legislative, Judicial)

• Different types of government for different types of regions (ex. Republic in small city-states)

EUROPEAN POLITICS

• Absolutism

• Led by France, monarchy entered new phase: absolutism.

• Larger bureaucracies and elaborate court ritual raised monarchs to new heights

• C. European monarchs followed French model, their power strengthened by defeat of the Turks.

• Sovereignty

• Ideas of sovereignty of the people developed (see Locke)

• Britain and Netherlands – representative law-making bodies limited power of monarchs.

• Nation-state

• All European countries ha commonalities as nation-states

• People bound by common culture, within clearly defined boundaries, at odds with other nation-states

• By 1750

• Political forms crystallize

• Enlightened despotism – Prussia of Frederick the Great

• Enlightenment thinkers set out to fix the world.

• Salons, coffeehouses, promoting growth of scholarly journals.

• Consumer demand for imported products

• Agriculture developed with improved drainage and importation of New World crops

• Manufacturing, fueled by capitalism and employing large number of works, increasingly dove economy

PORTUGAL

• Exploration (see above)

• Henry the Navigator (financed navigation)

• Bartholomeu Dias (sailed around Cape of Good Hope)

• Vasco Da Gama (sailed to India)

SPAIN

• Marriage of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella of Castile 1469

• Catholic Monarchs

• Reconquista

• Take back Granada – last Muslim territory

• Spanish Inquisition

• Non-Christians (Jews and Muslims) expelled

• “Converts” on trial (auto-da-fe), tortured, killed

• Columbus 1792

• Spanish conquistadors to Americas, followed by Spanish crown

• New Spain (Mexico) and New Castile (Peru)

• Each governed by a viceroy who was responsible to the Spanish king

• 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas

• Divided America in half (Sp. In W., Port. In E)

• Social result

• Multicultural and ethnically mixed population

• Majority of migrants were men

• Peninsulares, Creoles, mestizos, mulattoes and zambos (Native American and African)

• Empire thrived with silver mining, farming, stock raising, craft production

• Haciendas (large estates)

• served initially by labor acquired through encomienda system

• which gave settlers right to demand labor from native peoples

• At urging of Catholic priests (like De Las Casas)

• Who saw encomienda as hindering their conversion attempts

• This system was replaced with repartimiento system

• Which compelled native communities to supply laborers

• but only for limited periods of time and for a fair wage.

• Mita System

• As the plantation system grew in Americas

• so did use of African slave labor

• Missionaries

• Hoped to spread Christian faith to the natives

• Many did adopt Christianity but blended it with own traditions

• Columbian Exchange

RUSSIAN EMPIRE (1480-1917)

• After 100s of years under Mongol tributary rule, Russia emerged as empire of its own

• Removal of the Mongol yoke (mid 15th c. )

• Grand Duchy (1283-1547)

• Initial Westward Expansion 1480s

• Ivan III

• Grand prince of Moscow

• Stopped paying tribute to Mongols

• In 1480 began building an empire for himself

• Established a strong central govt. ruled by an absolute monarch (czar) who was also head of the Russian Orthodox Church.

• Czar also received authority from God.

• Influence of Mongols

• Didn’t’ change Russian culture but caused Russia to stagnate

• Tsars began process of reviving and recreating Russian culture

• Largely by tying its past to that of Byzantine Emprie.

• Expansion

• Russian independence meant territorial expansion.

• Cossacks, peasant-adventurers, were used to settle the newly taken lands.

• The lands, in turn, could be used to buy the loyalty of the boyars.

• Russian expansion put an end to the periodic emergence of nomadic peoples from central Asia

• Tsars began policy of contact with the West, commercially and culturally.

• Ivan the Terrible (r. 1533-1584) (Rurik Dynasty)

• Grand Prince of Moscow 1533-1547, Tsar of all Russias 1547-death in 1584)

• Conquests

• Khanates of Kazan, Astakhan and Siberia

• = multiethnic and multi religious state

• Transformed Russia from a medieval state to an empire

• (first ruler to be crowned as Tsar of all the Russias)

• Was intelligent and devout

• But also prone to rages and mental illness

• Killed his heir leaving throne to younger, weaker son (Feodor)

• Duties to minister Boris Godunov

• Time of Troubles

• Between death of last Russian Tsar of Rurik Dynasty (Feodor Ivanovich) in 1598

• And establishment of Romanov Dynasty in 1613

• In 1601-1603 Russia suffered famine that killed 1/3 of pupation (about 2 million)

• Russia occupied by Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

• Civil uprisings, usurpers, imposters

• After a reign of terror by Ivan the Terrible and Time of Troubles

• Romanov family to power

• Ruled next 300 years

• Peter the Great (1682-1725)

• fascinated with Western technology

• Instituted policy of forced and rapid modernization.

• Cultural changes

• Russian noble dress and manners – resented by many.

• Established industries based on the most advanced science and technology

• Not interested in representative government

• Instead reformed the midair with professional soldiers and began to construct a navy

• Obsession with “everything western”

• symbolized by insistence that all Russian men wear western clothes and shave bears

• St. Petersburg = “window to the West.”

• Great Northern War with Sweden

• Catherine the Great (r. 1762-1796)

• Longest-ruling female leader of Russia

• Took over in coup after assassination of her husband Peter III at the end of the Seven Years’ War

• Continued many of Peter the Great’s policies

• Russia’s “Golden Age”

• Russia revitalize, growing larger and stronger than ever, became one of great powers of Europe

• Restricted freedom of peasants and intellectual wanting further reforms.

• Relied on favorites (Orlov and Potemkin)

• Expansion

• South: Crimean Khanate crushed after victory over Ottoman Empire in Russo-Turkish Wars

• Partition of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

• Ruled by Catherine’s former lover, king Stanislaw August Poniatowsky

• Russian Empire got largest share

• Russia began to colonize Alaska

• Modernization

• Catherine admired Peter the Great – set out to modernize

• But military conscription and economy continued to depend on serfdom

• Increasing demands of the state and private landowners led to increased levels of reliance on serfs

• Reason for several rebellions, including the large-scale Pugachev’s Rebellion of Cossacks and peasants

• Cossacks are East Slavic people from Ukraine a

• Nobles

• Manifesto on Freedom of the Nobility issued by Peter III

• Confirmed by Catherine

• Nobles freed from compulsory military or state service

• Russian nobles had a more important role than their western counterparts

• Who, by this time, were largely ornamental.

• Enlightened despot

• Corresponded with Voltaire

• First higher education for women in Europe

• Fur trade with N. America

• Russian serfdom

• After Mongol rule many free peasants fell into great debt, were forced to become serfs on large estates

• Russian govt. encouraged the process beginning in 1500s because it was way to satisfy the nobility and to regulate the peasants at the same time.

• As new territories added to empire, serfdom extended as well

• 1649, an act proclaimed that serfs were born into their status

• and could not escape it.

• Serfs could be bought or sold, gambled away, punished

• Whole villages could be sold to supply manufacturing labor – but not literally slaves

• Serfs who were illiterate and poor had to pay high taxes and owed extensive labor service to their landlords in form of agriculture, mining or manufacturing.

• Position of serfs declined in 1600s and 1700s satisfying the nobility (who managed this agrarian population for the tsars).

• Serfdom resembled slavery

• Peasant society largely self-governed

• Status declined throughout 18th century.

• Agricultural practices saw little improvement

• Peasant rebellions brutally repressed (Pugachev)

• Merchant class small

ASIA

ASIAN TRADING WORLD

• Asian trading network linked Pacific and Indian oceans in three commercial zones

• Arab zone:

• Red Sea and Persian Gulf

• Glass and textiles from Middle East

• Indian zone:

• Cotton textiles

• China zone

• Paper, porcelain and silks

• Spices still dominated the trade

• From Ceylon and Indonesia.

• Coastal routes preferred

• When Portuguese arrived

• No central power controlled trade

• Military power rarely used

• Portugues changed the rules.

• Lacking goods desired in east, Portuguese resorted to force to obtain spices they came for.

• Da Gama in 1502 used advantage to capture ports

• To fortify their grwoign network, they took Goa and Ormuz.

• Portuguese aimed to establish a system in which they would control all traffic in the Indian Ocean.

• Portuguese never able to extend the monopoly they desired, even by using the most brutal measures.

• Dutch and English

• Arrived in 1600s

• Dutch early lead

• Built port of Batavia on Java – well positioned for the spice trade

• Dutch trading empire followed same lines as Portugues, yet Dutch eventually turned to peaceful cooperation (COMP AND CCOT)

• In general Euroepans remained on coastlines

• With a few exceptions like Dutch control north of Java installing coffee planations

• Spanish

• Conquest of Philippines in 1500s starting with Luzon and the nearby islands

• Failed to take Mindanao and the northern islands.

• Tribute system established

• Leaving local rulers in place

• Christianity

• Converting Asians to Christianity was made difficult by the secure position of Islam in many areas

• Francis Xavier, a Jesuit missionary, made headway in converting low-cast Hindus.

• Robert di Nobili learned Sanskrit to help convert high-caste Indians – but little success.

• Spanish work in the Philippines led to more converts.

• Christianity there, however, was Filipino blend of traditional and Christian beliefs.

• CONT – Great continuity of customs and religious practices in the Philippines mitigated the impact of Christianity.

CHINA

• Ming (1368-1644)

• Founded by Zhu Yuanzhang, of peasant stock

• Influenced by time spent in a Buddhist monarstery, he led a rebel group and defeated the Mongol ruler

• Claimed title of Hongwu emperor in 1368 and began purge of Mongol influences

• Ming reestablished and extended the examination system

• Hongwu

• cleaned up corruption at court.

• Also tried to rid the palace of intrigues of royal wies and eunuchs.

• Programs included public works, improving agricultureal irrigation, encoruaign farming on abandoned lands.

• Increasing power of landlords greatly lessened the impact of these improvements.

• This gentry class created its own cutlrue

• To justify it inceasing power.

• Women and children

• Under Ming emperors the low place of women and the young was intensified.

• Economy

• Agricutlural expansion and imports from Spanish and Portugeuse stimulated an economic boom

• Miaze, sweet potatoes and peanuts were imported and became staples

• High demand for Chiense goods

• Meant influx of Aemrican silver

• Foreign traders allowed only on Macao and Canton

• Chinese merchants fared well.

• In imitation of gentry, merchants invested in land.

• Culture

• Fine arts flourished as well

• Mainly along traditional lines

• Novel achieved its lasic form

• Zheng he

• Under Emperor Yongle

• Admiral Zheng he led seven expeditions to the west.

• Size and scope demonstrated the Chinese capacity to undertake global expansion.

• Yet Chinese retreated, instead closing off more firmly than ever

• Missionaries to China

• Matteo Ricci and Alan Schall chose to convert the country from the top down

• But met with little success.

• End

• Ming court weakened by corruption and rulers distance themselves from the people

• Public works lapsed

• Disaffected farmers turned to banditry

• Rebellion brought Ming dynasty down in 1644, when the last emperor hanged himself to avoid capture.

• Qing Dynasty (1644-1911)

• 1640s Ming dynasty had declined and taken over by peasant army.

• But nomadic people from north east, the Manchu, which had aided the peasant army

• Soon ousted the peasant army

• And took over as the Qing dynasty

• China under foreigners for the second time

• Manchus mimicked Chinese culture generations before

• unlike Mongols

• bolstered many aspects of Chinese govt.

• to include using Confucian civil service exam system

• Like Mongols

• Manchu wanted to preserve their own ethic and cultural identity

• So forbade intermarriage between Manchu and Han Chinese

• Forbade Chinese from travelling to Manchuria and from learning their language

• forced Chitins men to wear their hair in a braid called a queue as sign of submission.

JAPAN

Japan: Tokugawa Shogunate (1600-1867)

• After period of civil war and disorder

• Series of military rulers brought an end ot daimyo warare in Japan

• Nobunaga

• Used European firearms to depose the Ashikaga shogun in 1513

• Toyotomi Hideyoshi

• Pursued his predecessor’s killers

• Ambitious and able, Hideyoshi undertook conquest of Korea, but failed

• Tokugawa Ieyasu established Tokugawa Shogunate in 1600

• Ruled from Edo.

• Tokugawa shoguns ended daimyo warfare.

• He wanted to stabilize the region and prevent civil war.

• Did this by increasing his control over the daimyos

• Insisting that they spend every other year at the capital (Edo, now Tokyo) so that he could keep an eye on them.

• Relations with outside world closely controlled

• Japanese forbidden from going abroad and from constructing large ships

• Europeans expelled from Japan

• Foreign merchants not allowed to trade in Japanese ports (except small number of Chinese and Dutch ships at Nagasaki)

• Despite restriction, economy grew

• As agricultural production increased and population grew

• IN more peacful times

• Samurai became government administrators

• Christianity

• Had made some important inroads in Japan by 1580 (150,000 Japanese Christians) converts

• But government ended these missions

• And went as far as trying and executing the missionaries who did not leave.

• Nobunaga patronized Christian missionaries hoping to lessen the power of militant Buddhist orders.

• However under Hideyoshi, Christians came to be seen as a threat.

• Hideyoshi expelled the Christian missionaries and then persecuted their converts

• Ieyasu went further

• Attempting to rid the islands of all Europeans

• By mid 1th c. European contact limited to Dutch trade on Deshima island

• In this climate, the School of National Learning focused on the uniqueness of Japanese history and culture.

• Dutch merchants

• continued to be the principal source of information about Europe

• keeping Japanese up-to-date with important scientific and technological developments.

ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE

• Migration of 12- 15 million Africans to New World

• Age of Exploration and Columbian Exchange

• Portuguese le the way

• Established factories to facilitate trade

• Trading fortresses and compounds with resident merchants to assure secure landing places and commerce

• El Mina in West Africa, being the most important trading factory

• More interested in trade than conquest

• So generally peaceful relations with African rulers

• Portuguese down coast and founded Luanda, later expanded to colony of Angola

• Luanda = Portuguese factory est. 1520s south of Kongo, became basis for Portuguese colony of Angola

• Sought conversion

• Greatest success was Nzinga Mvemba – ruler of Kongo.

• 1507 to 1543, converted to Christianity and took title Alfonso I

• Under Portuguese influence attempted to Christinaize all of kingdom.

• Competition with other nations.

• Portugal controlled traffic for much of history of slave trade.

• From 1630 onward (CHANGE) competition increased

• Dutch seized El Mina in 1637.

• British Royal African Company

• Chartered by English govt. 1672 to conduct its merchats’ trade on the Atlantic coast of Affrica

• Then French

• Trans-Atlantic slave trade

• Portuguese trade in salves developed slowly

• Only one of many commodities.

• Slavery in Europe (except for Iberia) had disappeared

• Development of sugar plantations raised need for slave labor.

• High mortality – on board and plantations – with low birth rates kept demand high.

• Brazil received about 42% of the slaves.

• Trade initially in Africans from Senegambia, then from modern Zaire and Angola

• Then from Dahomey and Benin.

• Mostly men

• Trans-Saharan slave trade

• Mostly in women – for concubines in Islamic lands (COMP) v. trans-Atlantic trade in men

• How slaves acquired

• Tribes took prisoners from neighboring tribes and enslave them

• Purchases of slaves made through local rulers

• Also sporadic raids.

• Value of slave

• Based on Indies Piece – price of an adult male slave

• African law didn’t recognize private property

• So land did not equal wealth

• Only human labor = wealth

• Spread of Islam

• Created new trade routes across Northern Africa to Middle East

• By time Europeans in Sub-Saharan Africa, slave traffic had been well-established for 500 years.

• Portuguese

• off coast of Africa in 1500s

• Once took Brazil, brought plantations there.

• Slave trade had become trans-oceanic

• Middle Passage

• 4-6 weeks

• Triangular trade

• European manufactured goods (firearms esp.) for slaves

• Slaves to Caribbean and America

• American products to Europe

• Effect on Africa

• Some benefited economically

• Population losses (esp. men)

• Firearms led to increased political conflict

• Christianity created synthesis (brought by slaves to New World)

• Effect on America

• Demographic changes (diseases killing Indians, Africans and Europeans in)

• Cash crops (sugar, tobacco, cotton or coffee)

• Encomienda System

• Early Spanish settlers needed labor

• Encomienda system gave them right to demand labor in mines and fields of natives

• Laborers worked hard and punished severely

• Haciendas – Large estates

• Natives abused

• People like de Las Casas

• Sp. Replaced encomienda with repartimiento system

• Natives supplied labor for Spanish mines and farms

• But limited work time and compensated with wages

• Many groups had to send laborers to work on state projects.

• Peru mita system mobilized 1000s of natives to work in silver mines

• paid wages but abused

AFRICA

• Slavery

• African traditions of slavery deeply engrained in system and social hierarchy

• Condition of salves varied greatly

• Concubines = polygamy in Islam

• In Islam enslavement of Muslims forbidden

• Changes because of slavery

• Endemic wafare typified much of Sub-Saharan Africa (with exptio f Songhay)

• One of the results was constant supply of slave.

• As Europeans settled aong coast, they provoked shift in pwer relations of states in interior.

• Ghana and Songhay able to make sues of their position as intermeiares in commerce.

• Asante

• African kingdom on Gold Coast that expanded rapidly after 1800

• Asante participated in Atlantic economy, trading gold, slaves and ivory

• Resisted British imperial ambitions for quarter century before eign absorbed into Britain.

• Osei Tutu

• Unified the Akan clans, taking the title asantahene or supreme ruler.

• For nearly two centuries (1650-1820) Asante ruled along the Gold coast.

• Dahomey

• Agaja - King of Dahomey

• Made use of European firearms to establish an empire.

• Dahomey - W. African empire 17th c to 1894, profited from slave trade expanded inward and captured slaves

• Controlled slave trade in its region.

• Dahomey remained independent, unified state longer than most of its neighbors.

• Politics

• Political experiementation included increasingly powerful monarchs and monarchs lilmtied by governing councils

• Culture

• Arts continued to thrive – often led by artisan guild.

• Demand for African crafts to suit Euroepan tastes increased Africa’s cotact iwht other world areas

• Swahili east coast

• Still formed part of the Indian Ocean trading area

• Brought ivory, gold and slaves from interior of continent.

• Clove planatioans using African slaves developed on Zanzibar and other islands

• Interior of Africa

• Less well understood

• Movements o Nilotic groups including the Luo people led to network of dynasties in east central Africa

• Kingdom of Bunyoro was one of the most prominent in the 1500s and1600s.

• Islamization

• Following the breakup of Songhay, too on more dynamic, even militant phase

• Ususman Dan Fodio – a Muslim scholar of the Fulani peole so fhte Sudan

• Was inspired by Suficism

• Under his leadership, the Fulani took over several Hausa states, crating the Sokoto k kingdom.

• Fulani rebelled against the Germans in German East Africa in 1890s

• Expansion of Fulani had impact on west African interior.

• Slavery in Sudan expanded as result of wars and of European pressures

• South Africa

• Initially little influence by slave trade

• Bantu migrations into area changed its economy

• Earlier dominated by Khoiikhoi and San hunters and sheepherders

• Bantu peoples n souther Arica organized into small chiefdoms.

• Their expansion further south borugh them into contact with Dutch settlers.

• Moving inland from the Cape Colony in search of land to farm

• Under British control from 1815

• The colony;s expansion led to warare with the Bantu

• Boer Great Trek

• Coincided with upheavals among the Bantu peoples

• Shaka, chief of Zulu from 1818.

• Ruthless leadership crated a powerful Zulu state that survived his death

• Shaka’s work was part of the mfecane.

• Mfecane = wars of 19th c. in southern Africa

• Created by Zulu expansion under Shaka

• Revolutionized political organization of southern AFrica

• Swazi (Bantu language related to Zulu) and Lesotho (landlocked constitutional monarchy) emerged at the same time

• Resisting Zulu expansion

• All of southern Africa involved in the turmoil of the mfecane.

• African diaspora

• Foreign products brought in to Africa

• Hierarchy

• Saltwater slaves – newly arrived

• Creole slaves – American boarn descendants of salt-water salves.

• Creole could gain more skilled work in better conditions

• Stood better chance of being manumitted.

• Slave communities

• Sometimes divided along lines similar to those in Africa

• Grew until 80% of colonial populations.

• North American slave poujaltion had higher birthrate and less need of newly-enlaved Africasn

• Thus more cut off from Africa than slave in other areas.

• Culture

• Aricans in slavery maintained as much of their culture as was possible, depending in part on whether they foud themselves with other slaves from their native region.

• Africans converted to Chrsitianity

• But their religiou traditions, obeah ( African religious ideas and practices in Englaish and French Caribbean islands) survived.

• Obeah/Obi/Obea – term used in West Indies to reer to folk magic, sorcery and religious practices deveoed among West Arican slaves, specifivcally of Igbo origin.

• Similar to other Afro-American religions like Palo, Bodou, Santeria and Hoodoo

• Brazil and Haiti

• African religion survived intact

• Candomle (Brazil), Vodun (Haiti)

• Resistance to slavery

• Alsoways present but Suriname. rarely successful.

• Palmares, a community of fugitive slaves in Brazil, was expesion

• Also Maroons of Jamaica and

• Abolition from outside Africa (William Wilberforce).

• British stopped the slave trade in 1807

• Slavery finally abolished in Americas when Brazil stopped practice in 1888

• European influence in Africa

• Europeans provided weapons which led to disruption of existing power structure.

• European goods and currency exchanged for slaves, made impact on economy.

• Greatest impact, demand for slaves.

• Although Africans often enslaved as result of internal wars, the high European demand for slaves for the New World led to massive exportation of Africans. – exacerbated internal tensions – did not cause them.

• SONGHAY (West Africa) (1464-1591)

• In 1400s West African state of Songhay emerged to take power over weakened Mali Empire

• Leader Sunni Ali, consolidated empire

• By appointing governors to oversee the provinces

• building a hierarchically commanded army

• and creating an imperial navy to patrol the Niger River

• Lucrative Trans-Saharan trade flowed through city of Gao,

• Brought textiles and metal

• In exchange for gold and slaves

• All Songhay emperors were Muslims

• Who supported mosques, schools and the Islamic university of Timbuktu.

• Still even though Islam served as the cultural foundation of the empire and a key element in establishing cooperation with Muslim merchants

• Traditional religious beliefs not abandoned.

• Decline

• As Europeans were making inroads into Africa

• Songhay Empire began to lose control of its many subject peoples.

• Defeated by the Moroccans in 1591

• KONGO (1300s to 1600s)

• Emerged as centralized state 14th c. along west coast of central Africa

• Powerful king ruled and officials oversaw military, judicial and financial affairs

• 1482 small Portuguese fleet arrived

• initiated commercial relations

• within a few years, Portuguese had developed a close political and diplomatic relationship with the king

• they provided him military force, which supported both of their interests

• King also converted to Christianity

• To improve commercial and diplomatic relations

• King Affonso I was a devout Roman Catholic and attempted to convert all of this subjects to Christianity

• Relationship between Portugal and Kongo

• seemed like one in which participants were equal

• interaction brought wealth and foreign recognition to Kongo,

• but eventually led to its decline

• Portuguese

• Brought textiles, weapons and craftsmen to Kongo

• They wanted gold, silver, and ivory

• Especially wanted slaves

• In exchange for weapons, they began slave raids

• with cooperation of local leaders

• These dealings undermined the king’s authority

• Kongo was defeated in war with Portuguese in 1665

• Never regained former power

LATIN AMERICA

• Iberian culture to Latin America

• Christian reconquest of Iberian peninisula shaped monarchies of Spain and Port.

• Aragon + Castile emerged as militantly Christian state. (pers. of Jews and Muslims)

• Iberian traditions transferred to conquered lands

• Slaveholding

• Patriarchal family

• Centralized colonial governments

• Dependent on professional bureaucrats and the clergy

• Encomiendas = grants of Indian workers given to settlers

• Encomenderos control of Caribbean islands

• (Hispaniola 1493, Puerto Rico 1508, Cuba 1511.

• Colonial urban design

• Political institutions such as governors.

• By 1520s, shift to ranching and sugar plantations – devastating results.

• Conquest

• Hernan Cortes took Tenochtitlan killed Moctezuma II.

• Spanish New Spain took place of Aztec confederacy.

• Francisco Pizarro

• Conquered Inca, capital Cuzco fell 1533.

• Pedro de Valdivia founded city of Santiago, Chile in 1541

• Francisco Vasquez de Coronado led expedition to southwest US

• Reasons

• Hoped to become wealthy

• How?

• Superior military technology, disease, and existing division within the native empires.

• Criticism

• Bartolome de las Casas – outspoken critic of abuses.

• Labor

• Decline in population of American people, remaining natives more vulnerable

• Enslavement of Indians generally stopped by about 1550

• Forced labor common

• Political reasons, the practice of granting encomiendas stopped by 1620s

• Practice of mita, forced labor in Peru, used Indians for mining and other state projects.

• Continuities

• Indigenous culture continued

• Economics

• Mining most important colonial enterprise

• Looted gold from first decades of conquest followed by newly-mined gold and silver

• Mexico and Peru held greatest stores of silver

• Potosi in modern Bolivia and Zacatecas

• Mexico mining communities developed

• Modernization of silver extraction using mercury from Huancavelica increased silver exports.

• Mining le to growth of other domestic industries such as cloth manufacture.

• Agriculture

• (CONT) Indian traditional agriculture continue

• (CHANGE) Crops such as sugar gown for export on Haciendas (rural estates)

• Industry

• Industries like woolen cloth production made colonies more self-sufficient (but mining dominated the economy)

• Trade

• Spanish had monopoly on trade

• All trade passed through Seville with its consulado or merchant guild.

• Spain kept other nations out of its commercial sphere with galleons and use of fortified ports such as Havana.

• In spite of great wealth flowing into Spain, much of it flowed out to the rest of Europe.

• Revenue from taxation was greater (1/5 to Spanish crown)

• Spanish government

• Spain ruled empire with use of letrados , lawyers.

• Colonial law was recodified in 1681 as the Recopilacion

• Council of the Indies governed the colonies from Spain through two viceroys

• Domains divided into 10 judiciaries each: the audiencias.

• Catholic Church was major component of rule.

• Religious orders responsile for conversion and education and sometimes protection of natives.

• European culture and thought imported and disseminated largely through the church

• Even offices of the Inquisition were established.

• Brazil

• Portuguese 1st reached S. America in 1500 but territory ignored for decades

• Portuguese nobles granted captaincies – nearly autonomous domains.

• Followed by Jesuits and series of coastal settlements grew up.

• Sugar cane was by far greatest commondity

• Demanded large amounts of capital and labor

• Model plantation colony

• Society

• White planters at top to slaves on bottom.

• Massive importation of slaves led to their making up half the population.

• Govt.

• Governor-genral represented Portuguese rule

• Colonial changes?

• Its dependence on Portugal was great and the colony was slow to develop its own cultural life.

• European plticial developments echoed in the colonies.

• Paulistas

• Portugal’s hold on brazil extended when Paulistas explored interior

• Gold strikes in region of Minas Gerais led to gold rush.

• By mid 18th c. Brazil was the world’s greatest gold producer

• Mining led to more development of interior and destruction of more native populations.

• Rio de Janeiro became colony’s capital.

• Competition

• Treaty of Tordesillas 1494 (Portugal and Spain)

• Caste system

• Miscegenation = mestizos

• Sociedad de castas = society of castes

• Used race, wealth, occupation and place of birth to determine a person’s place in society.

• Legal restrictions applied to different groups.

• Top, peninsulares, then creoles.

• Changes

• Reforms: from Englightenment, amigos del pais met in Spain to discuss reform.

• Spain’s hold on colonies threatened by piracy and competition of other European nations.

• War of Spanish Succession (1700-1714 – Charles II) resolved by Treaty of Utrecht in 1713

• Opened Spanish trading empire to France and England

• Charles III (Bourbon)

• Revived Spanish control of colonies

• Sought to make colonial structure more effective (CONT)

• Jose de Galvez became minister of Indies

• Created system of intendants that made administration more effective

• Loss of Florida (French and Indian War) and Havanda

• Led Spain to strengthen the colonial milita.

• Grants of monopolies increased governemnt’s control over key commodities.

• Trade opened to other nations, leading to boom in some areas

• Like Buenos Aires ranching industry.

• But some areas economic decline

• Reforms led to dissatisfaction – creoles lost place in govt.

• Brazil changes under Marquis of Pombol

• Followed English model of mercantilism.

• Encouraged mixed marriages

• Revenue lost due to declining gold production.

• Population growth

• = exploitation of new areas and higher volume of exports to Europe.

• Revolts

• Comunero Revolt of 181 nearly ended colonial rule in New Granada

• Native rising of Tupac Amaru in Peru took 3 years to suppress.

• Brazil had no major revolts.

• Deep divisions in colonial society made unified protest unlikely

• COMPARISONS

• Economics

• Spanish Latin America – mining

• Brazil – sugar, then gold strikes

• Slavery

• Died out in Medieval Europe, survived in Iberia, exported to New World

ENVIRONMENT

• Columbian exchange

• New foods – potato, to Europe

• Landscapes destroyed to build plantations for cash crops (sugarcane, coffee)

• Degradation of topsoil and loss of vegetative cover encouraged flooding and mudslides.

• Diseases

• smallpox, measles etc.

• 90% mortality rate

• Little Ice Age

• Several 100 year period of cooling and warming trends

• From 15th c. to mid 18th c.

• as temperatures fell, growing seasons shortened and some types of crops (part. Grains in north) failed completely

• Freezing of rivers and harbors – allowed armies to cross normally barriers to their movement.

• Tokugawa laws restricted timbering operations and plant new trees when old ones cut

• Louis XIV’s forestry program to manage France’s timber resources.