Spain under Napoleon

• Napoleon invaded Spain in 1808

• Forced Bourbon Spain's king, Charles IV to abdicate

• Napoleon put his brother, Joseph, in power as the Spanish king

• Created crisis of legitimacy

New Spain

• Peninsulares (Spanish nobles born in Spain) took over rule of New Spain

• Creoles (Spanish people born in Mexico) plotted to become independent from Spain

Cry of Dolores

• Miguel Hidalgo y Costillo

• A Catholic priest from the village of Dolores

• On Sept. 16, 1810, he issued his Grito de Dolores ("Cry of Dolores")

• Which called for:

• The end of Spanish rule in Mexico

• Redistribution of land

• Racial equality

• Hidalgo gathered an army of 90,000 poor farmers

• Hidalgo was captured and executed July 30, 1811

• Followed by other peasant leaders

• Like Vicente Guerrero

• Who fought against the Spanish and Royalists

MEXICAN INDEPENDENCE (1821)

• Royalist General Iturbide had originally fought for the Spanish

• But after a liberal coup d'etat in Spain

• Conservatives in Mexico (like Iturbide) wanted immediate independence

• Collaboration at Iguala

• Iturbide allied with rebel leader Vicente Guerrero's radical insurgents

• Plan of Iguala (Feb. 24, 1821)

• Proclaimed three guarantees

• Immediate Independence from Spain

• Equality for Peninsulares and Creoles

• Supremacy of the Roman Catholic Church (banned all other religions)

• Mexico would become an independent constitutional monarchy

• Treaty of Cordoba (Aug. 24, 1821)

• Granted Mexico independence

AGUSTIN DE ITURBIDE (r. 1822-23)

• Iturbide, a caudillo (Mexican military chieftain) became the first president of the newly independent Mexico

• After independence, Iturbide removed Guerrero

• May 19, 1822, Iturbide declared himself emperor.

• Ruled in an arbitrary manner, didn't bring stability

• ​1823 Iturbide was overthrown by General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna

• Iturbide fled to Italy, then England

• Executed when he returned to Mexico, July 15, 1824

Provisional Government of Mexico (1823-1824)

• After the fall of Iturbide, a republic was created

• Called the United Mexican States

• With a succession of a half dozen heads of state

ANTONIO LOPEZ DE SANTA ANNA (r. 1833-1855, 22 years of rule jwere not consecutive)

• Bio

• Santa Anna at first opposed Mexican independence, then changed mind.

• The General who overthrew Iturbide in Mar. 19, 1823

• Santa Anna drew up new constitution

• Established a federal Mexican republic with 19 states and 4 territories

• Ruled as president 1823-1836

Political instability (1825-1850)

• National governments changed hands rapidly

• Between 1825 and 1855 there were 48 different executives

TEXAS INDEPENDENCE

• Battle of Alamo (Feb. 23-Mar. 6, 1836)

• Battle of San Jacinto (Apr. 21, 1836)

• Texas became independent from Mexico (1836)

MEXICAN-AMERICAN WAR (1846-1848)

• Mexico lost California, New Mexico and Utah territories to the United States (Mexican Cession, in pink to the right)

• Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

• And lost the last remaining piece of land in the Gadsden Purchase (in yellow to the right) of 1853 for $10 million.

• Caused the Revolution of Ayutla

PLAN OF AYUTLA 1854

• Plan aimed at removing Santa Anna from power

• Revolution of Ayutla ousted Santa Anna in 1855

• Santa Anna fled to France

LA REFORMA (1858-1860)

• Second Federal Republic of Mexico

• Three-year civil war

• Between Liberal Party and Conservatives

• Liberal Party

• Ruled since 1855 under Plan of Ayutla

• Based in Veracruz

• Led by reformist Benito Juarez

• Recognized by the US government

• Conservative Party

• Ruled from Mexico City

• Led by Felix Zuloaga

• Jan. 1861 Liberals captured Mexico City

• Liberal President Benito Juarez moved administration to Mexico City

• But there was still instability and a growing foreign debt.

BENITO JUAREZ (r. 1858-1862, 1867-1872)

• Bio

• Born to poor rural Zapotec family

• Became lawyer

• Government was in debt

• Bankrupt treasury

• Army and police force hadn't been paid

• Commerce stagnant

• Transportation inadequate

• No currency in circulation

• Juarez in 1861 ordered two-year moratorium on payment of Mexico's foreign debt

• Caused Spanish, French and British governments to meet in Mexico (Oct 31, 1861)

• Signed tripartite agreement (Cnvention of London) to intervene in Mexico to recover unpaid debts

• Europeans landed at Veracruz Dec. 8

• Conservatives saw the forces as valuable allies in struggle against Liberals.

• French under Napoleon III captured Mexico City (Spanish and British withdrew)

FRENCH INTERVENTION - EMPEROR MAXIMILIAN (1862-1867)

• In 1862, French Emperor Napoleon III (nephew of Napoleon I) established a French client state in Mexico

• Installed Maximilian of Hapsburg as Emperor

• Maximilian's conservative government controlled much of the country

• But Liberals kept power in northwest and parts of Pacific coast

• Under Benito Juarez

• U.S. under Sec. of State Seward disapproved

• But U.S. was busy in Civil War

• Abraham Lincoln didn't want Mexico to help Confederacy

• Mexican Resistance

• Conservatives not happy with Maximilian's attempts to adopt more Liberal policies

• Liberals saw Maximilian as a tool for French interests.

• Cinco de Mayo (May 5, 1962)

• Mexican Army defeated the French Empire at the Battle of Puebla

• A year later, a larger French force defeated the Mexican Army

• At the Second Battle of Pueblo

• French withdrew 1867

• Because of resistance (50000 Mexicans had died fighting the French)

• And because the Empire was drain on French treasury

• Mexico's second empire collapsed in colonial city of Queretaro

• Juarez and the Republicans returned

• Juarez ordered death penalty for Maximilian Oct. 1865

BENITO JUAREZ (1867-1872)

• French occupation had caused growth of Mexican nationalism

• But hurt economy

• Treasury still empty

• Commerce, industry, agriculture in shambles

• Politics

• Lack of strong central authority under French caused localism

• Armed men in countryside

• Juarez returned to Mexico City Jul. 15, 1867

• Called for elections

• He was voted in for 3rd term as President of the Republic

• Juarez reforms

• Tried to implement Constitution of 1857 and modernize Mexico

• Economy

• Named Matias Romero as secretary of the treasury

• Romera called for improved transportation

• Tax and tariff restructuring

• And exploitation of natural resources by attracting foreign capital

• Believed future was in mining, not industrialization

• But foreign capital was difficult to get because of reputation of political instability, rebellions and bandits

• Secularized Mexico

• Catholic Church was barred from owning property

• Except churches and monasteries

• Education and marriage were now in the hands of the state

• Army and Police force

• Juarez reduced Mexican army from 60,000 to 20,000 (to reduce military rule)

• Funded a rural police force (rurales)

• Helped the army

• Patrolled roads

• Guarded shipments of bullion etc.

• Contributed to stabilization in the countryside.

• Transportation

• 1873 completed Mexico City-Veracruz RR (had begun in 1937)

• Work was done by the Ferrocarril Mexicano (Mexican RR Co.)

• Finished work done by British

• Blessed by the Archbishop (signaled improved relations between church and state)

• Education

• 5-man commission headed by Gabino Barreda

• Emphasis on arithmetic, physics, chemistry, mechanics

• Primary education was free and obligatory for first time

• Foreign relations

• US

• US had helped Mexico during Maximilian

• US Sec. of State William Seward visited Mexico 1869

• Election 1871

• Juarez's popularity had been declining

• Juarez v. two other liberals

• Porfirio Diaz (General in war against French) (Porfiristas)

• And Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada (Lerdistas)

• Had backing of professional classes and wealthy

• No majorities so contest went to Congress.

• Juarez reelected.

• Diaz proclaimed Revolt of La Noria to oust Juarez

• Juarez died July 19, 1872 (coronary seizure)

• New election

• Lerdo defeated Diaz

SEBASTIAN LERDO DE TEJADA

• Juarez succeeded by Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada

• Lerdo wanted peace through strong executive control

• Liberalism became centralized and dictatorial

• Kept many Juaristas in government (including Romero)

• Railroad and telegraph

• Used rurales to patrol Mexico-City-Veracruz RR

• New line from Mexico City to border of US by Central Railroad of Mexico

• Goal - to connect all the state capitals to Mexico City via telegraph

• Education

• 1870-1871 number of schools doubled

• But still only 1 of 19 school-age children (few were female)

• Government

• Lerdo added a Senate to the formerly unicameral Legislature

• He believed the elite Senate could help him centralize

• Lerdo de Tejado was overthrown in a coup 1876

• By Porfirio Diaz - Plan de Tuxtepec

• Which established no re-election of the president

PORFIRIO DIAZ (r. 1876-1880, 1884-1911)

• Improved economy

• ​When Diaz came to power

• There was an empty treasury

• Long list of foreign debts

• Huge bureaucracy who were behind on salaries

• Balance of trade problems

• Nearly impossible to get foreign capital

• Rich wouldn't invest

• Diaz changes

• Diaz reduced his salary and ordered reduction of govt. employee salaries

• 1000s of useless bureaucratic jobs eliminated

• Prevented smuggling through tough government policy

• After end of his first term

• Diaz stepped down as per Plan de Tuxtepec

• To show world that Mexico had matured politically

• Supported Manuel Gonzalez

MANUEL GONZALES presidency (1880-1884)

• Controversial presidency

• Gonzalez overextended government subsidies which left him with insufficient funds

• Rather than default on foreign debts

• Gonzales stopped paying salaries of many government officials

• Rumors of graft and corruption

• Illegally selling contracts

• Selling government property cheaply to favorites

• Stealing from the treasury

• Sex scandals

DIAZ'S SECOND TERM (1884-1911)

• Ruled as dictator

• Passed legislative reforms that allowed him to stay in office for 32 years

• All power remained in executive branch

• Legislative branch and Supreme Court had no power

• Diaz's appointees ran local and state governments

• Public safety

• Dedicated to rule of law and suppression of violence

• Suppressed banditry

• Economy - Mexico entered modern age

• Diaz welcomed foreign investment and trade

• Economy grew at annual rate of 2.3%

• Money from foreigner film crews

• Lowered foreign debt

• Foreigners flocked to Mexico to get jobs

• They were treated better than local Mexicans

• Court cases always favored foreigners

• Foreign policy

• Three new Mexican consulates opened along border with US

• New Department of Foreign Relations 1910

• Modernized Mexico (with new revenue)

• Mining

• Revived mining with new mining code 1884

• No mention of traditional Hispanic jurisprudence

• Owners of land controlled all the bituminous and mineral fuels

• New code attracted US and European investors in 1880s and 1890s

• Brought modern machinery

• New mining development (1880-1890) initiated by foreigners

• Sierra Mojada, Batopilas and El Boleo

• El Boleo (owned Fr. and Ger.) = one of richest copper mining areas in N. America

• Cyanide = easier mining

• Gold, silver

• Foreign investors: especially American Daniel Guggenheim and his brothers and Colonel William Greene

• Improved infrastructure

• Improved railways (could be used to send troops to quell rebellions)

• Improved telegraph and telephone system

• Dept. of Communications and Public works coordinated installation of cables

• Electric tramways connected Mexico City to suburbs

• Modernized army

• Reduced army from 30-20,000 people

• Saw army as a potential threat

• Hydroelectric-generating stations

• Health and sanitation

• Diaz hired British firm to deal with drainage problems in Mexico City

• Public buildings

• To improve Mexico's image abroad

• Boulevards, parks, public buildings, monuments, statues

• New penitentiary 1900

• $3 million post office 1907

• New asylum

• New buildings celebrated with festivals

• Problems

• Diaz gave political favors to the very wealthy and ignored the poor

• Economic crisis - prices doubled from 1900 to 1910

• Political crisis

• Middle classes wanted representation, greater freedoms, liberalism

• Diaz (in his 70s) had not decided on a successor

• Local autonomy disappearing

• Social crisis

• Communal lands were being replaced by haciendas because of exports

• Villages saw land and political autonomy disappearing

• Feared rurales and intimidation by local hacendados and jefes politicos

• Diplomatic crisis with US

• Dictatorship

• Diaz used military to force compliance and administer the country

• Diaz spent 1/4 of the budget on military establishment (believed it was important for forced peace)

• Military dominated state governorship and the 300 jefe politicos (local political bosses)

• Convergence of crises

• Led to 10-year Civil War - 2 million casualties (1/8 population killed)

REVOLUTIONARIES

• Discontent over Diaz abuses turned into new desire for social reform

• Wistano Luis Orozco

• Concerned with social issues

• 1895 criticized Diaz land laws

• Said "large accumulation of land in a single hand causes ruin and degradation"

• Revolutionaries gathered in San Antonio, Texas -- then St. Louis Missouri

• Flores Magon brothers

• Camilo Arriaga

• And benefactor, Francisco I. Madera

• Published weekly magazine called the Regeneracion

• Smuggled into Mexico

• In 1906 the junta published its Liberal Plan

• Freedom of speech

• Freedom of press

• Suppression of jefe politicos

• Secularization of education

• Nationalization of Church property

• No more death penalty

• Educational reforms for poor

• Prison reform (rehabilittion)

• 8-hour workday/6 day week

• No more tienda de raya (pasmen in legal tender)

• No more child labor

• All uncultivated lands to be taken over by the state and redistributed to people who would work them.

MEXICAN REVOLUTION 1910-1921

• Long-term causes

• Continued caste and class system (holdover from Spanish era)

• Diaz's oppressive 31-year rule

• No freedom of speech or assembly

• Diaz favored wealthy landowners and industrialists

• 1910 Election

• In 1908 Dias had said he welcomed democratization in Mexico

• Suggested he would not run a 7th term

• Diaz proclamations opened way for Francisco I. Madero

• Wealthy landowner from Coahuila

• But Diaz changed his mind and decided to run for re-election

• To eliminate the competition, Diaz had Madero jailed

• Madero escaped from jail and fled to Laredo, Texas

• Porfirio Diaz won through rigged election

• Plan of San Luis Potosi (Oct. 5, 1910)

• Written by Madero In San Antonio, Texas

• Called for end of Diaz's authoritarian presidency

• Restoration of democracy

• And Mexicans to revolt Nov. 20, 1910

• Series of revolts

• Diaz was forced to resign May 1911

• ​He fled in exile to Paris with most of his family

• His nephew, Felix Diaz, stayed in Mexico

• Interim government installed

• ​Under Leon de la Barra (May-Nov. 1911)

• ​Who kept many of Diaz's people in government

FRANCISCO I. MADERO Presidency (1911-1913)

• Madero bio

• Born in Coahuila in 1873

• Wealthy family

• Went to school in Paris and Berkeley, California

• Was in charge of his families haciendas

• But became interested in the welfare of the peones who worked them

• Supported the Flores Magon brothers

• Until they became too radical

• Wrote "La Sucesion Presidencial en 1910" saying that Diaz should be challenged and that Mexico needed democracy.

• New elections October 1, 1911

• Madero won as an "Anti-re-electionist"

• Committed to constitutional democracy, rule of law, separation of powers

• Also planned to breakup large estates (didn't do it)

• Gave positions of power to his family

• Began to lose support

• Revolts against Madero

• Nov. 1911

• Emiliano Zapata and Zapatistas revolted in Morelos (south)

• Zapata formed Liberation Army of the South

• And issued Plan de Ayala

• Called for redistribution of lands to the peasants

• Zapata drove Madero's forces (led by Victoriano Huerto) out of Morelos

• Through scorched-earth policy

• Zapatistas were contained but not suppressed

• Mar. 1912

• Pascual Orozco (Orozquistas) and Pancho Villa revolted in Chihuahua

• Accused Madero of ignoring the Plan of San Luis Potosi and permitting corruption.

• Orozco demanded

• 10-hour workday

• Restrictions on child labor

• Better working conditions

• Higher wages

• Suppression of tiendas de raya (company stores)

• All railroads nationalized and operated by Mexicans

• And uncultivated land distributed to landless farmers

• Orozco not popular outside of Chihuahua

• Put down by General Victoriano Huerto

• But leaders escaped

• Pancho Villa became governor of Chihuahua 1913 and 1914

• Oct. 1912

• Unsuccessful attempt to overthrow Madero

• By Diaz's nephew, Felix Diaz (in Veracruz) and Bernardo Reyes (Nuevo Leon)

• Unsuccessful: Felix Diaz and Reyes sentenced to life in prison (Mexico City)

• US Ambassador Henry Lane Wilson

• Representing President William Howard Taft

• Tried to undermine Madero's administration

TEN TRAGIC DAYS (Decena Tragica) (Feb. 9-Feb. 19, 1913)

• Rebels demanded release of Gen. Felix Diaz and Bernardo Reyes

• Both released

• Reyes was killed, along with 400 others.

• Madero named General Victoriano Huerta to command his troops

• Mexico City in chaos

• Artillery fire, burning cars, looters

• Belen prison burst open (100s of inmates)

• 1000s of civilian casualties

• Pact of the Embassy (Feb. 18, 1913)

• Victoriano Huerta (Madero's key general) decided to change sides

• Huerta sent General Aureliano Blanquet to National Palace to arrest Madero, VP and cabinet

• Called the Pact of the Embassy

• General Felix Diaz and Victoriano Huerta met at U.S embassy

• Negotiated under aegis of U.S. ambassador in Mexico City - Henry Lane Wilson

• In era of "Dollar Diplomacy"

• Madero and VP (Pino Suarez) were forced to resign

• New president

• ​Foreign Minister Pedro Lascurain sworn in as interim president according to line of succession

• Lascurain appointed General Huerta Secretary of Interior (next in line of succession)

• Then Lascurain resigned less than an hour later

• ​According to Constitution of 1857, presidency passed to Sec. of Interior (Huerta)

• Madero and Suarez murdered Feb. 22, 1913

• ​While being transported to a penitentiary

VICTORIANO HUERTA (1913-1914)

• Huerta became president in a coup Feb. 1913

• Appointed by Lascurain as Sec. of Interior

• Lascurain resigned minutes later

• Huerta became president

• Domestic reforms

• Raised budget for education

• Porfirio Diaz 7.2%, Madero 7.8%, Huerta 9.9%

• Curriculum added history, literature and philosophy

• Not just science and math

• Agriculture

• Distributed free seeds

• Expanded agricultural schools in Mexico City

• Restored 78 ejidos (areas of communal land) to Yaqui and Sonora Indians

• Commissioned Eduardo Tamariz (Sec. of Agriculture) to study problem of land redistribution

• Nothing in Constitution of 1857

• Solution - raise taxes on large haciendas - less profitable --> sale

• No social mobility for masses

• Huerta's presidency challenged by forces in north and south

• NORTH (CONSTITUTIONALISTS)

• Venustiano Carranza, Alvaro Obregon and Francisco "Pancho" Villa

• Carranza

• From rich, landowning family in Coahuila

• Proclaimed Plan of Guadalupe

• Denouncing Huerta and proposing restoration of constitutional govt.

• Carranza was "First Chief" (Primer Jefe) of Constitutionalist Army

• No mention of social reforms

• Obregon wanted to be neutral but joined Carranza

• Pancho Villa

• SOUTH (ZAPATISTAS)

• By Emiliano Zapata

• Like northerners, he wanted to get rid of Huerta

• But also wanted to restore village lands, so didn't join northerners

• Supported Plan de Ayala

CIVIL WAR (1914-1915)

• Civil War

• Constitutionalists won victories in north

• Huerta became dictatorial

• ​Turned whole country into war effort

• Railroads for military use only

• Federal army increased to 250,000 (12x as under Diaz)

• Forced conscription of poor and illiterate

• Huerta became dictatorial

• Press censorship

• Spies

• Political prisoners

• Political assassinations (Madero, Suarez, Belisario Dominguez)

• Dissolved the Legislature

• Economy in shambles

• Workforce depleted by Huerta

• No pickers for cotton, coffee beans, sugarcane

• Mines closed

• Cattle slaughtered for soldiers

• Transportation delays for food and manufactured goods

• Currency

• Government printed paper money not backed by gold or silver

• Constitutionalists and Zapatistas also printed their own currency

• So did local regions

• 25 different kinds of paper currency in circulation

• Lots of counterfeiters

UNITED STATES INVOLVEMENT IN MEXICO

• U.S. under Woodrow Wilson refused to recognize Huerta

• Because he was not elected democratically

• Even though Henry Lane Wilson had tried to encourage US to recognize Huerta

• Ambassador Henry Lane Wilson recalled

• Replaced by John Lind (who didn't speak Spanish)

• Lind reports inaccurate, bellicose, anti-Catholic

• US supported Constitutionalists

• Occupation of Veracruz

• Pres. Woodrow Wilson beefed up US fleet in Mexican waters

• Some Americans from USS Dolphin came to Mexican shore for supplies (gas)

• Were arrested

• Mexico officially apologized

• But Rear Admiral Mayo wanted

• US flag on shore

• And 21-gun salute

• Mexico said okay if US also gave 21-gun salute to Mexican flag

• US refused because it would be like recognition of Huerta

• US Marines took Veracruz

• Led to anti-American outcry in Mexico (including from the Constitutionalists)

• Loss of Veracruz meant no revenue from customhouse

• Anti-Huerta forces

• Huerta's troops show of force against Americans

• Allowed Constitutionalists in north and Zapatistas in South to move into military vacuum

• Huerta resigned Jul. 8, 1914

• Because of diplomatic, economic and military pressure

HUERTA SURRENDERED

• Huerta's forces surrendered (Aug 15, 1914)

• Recognized Constitutional government

• Carranza entered Mexico City (supported by Obregon) (Aug. 20, 1914)

• Passed his Plan of Guadalupe

• ​Which named him (as First Chief of the Constitutionalist Army) as provisional governor.​

CONVENTION OF AGUASCALIENTES (Oct. 10-Nov, 9, 1914)

• Held to sort out power relations between the "big four" warlords

• Pancho Villa, Zapata, Carranza and Obregon

• Division among the revolutionaries

• ​Villistas and Zapatistas

• ​Fighting for land and liberty

• Believed others fighting for criollos, not Indians

• Favored agrarian Plan de Ayala

• Carrancistas and Obregonistas

• ​Fighting for political reasons

• Favored Plan of San Luis Potosi

• Convention elected Gen. Eulalio Gutierrez Ortiz

• Against wishes of Carranza

• ​President for 20 days

MEETING AT XOCHIMILCO (December, 1914)

• Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata met

• Both expressed mutual hatred of Carranza and his followers

• Villa:

• "Those are men who have always slept on soft pillows. How they ever be friends of the people, who have spent their whole lives in nothing but suffering?"

• Zapata:

• "On the contrary, they have always been the scourge of the people... Those carbines! As soon as these a little chance, well, they want to take advantage of it and line their own pockets! Well, to hell with them!"

• Alliance was short-lived

• Zapata to Morelos

• Villa to north

POLITICAL CHAOS (early 1915)

• President Gutierrez

• Abandoned Mexico City to Nuevo Leon

• Obregon

• Took Mexico City

• Carranza (Constitutionalists)

• Claimed to be ruler from Veracruz

• Carranza's Additions to the Plan of Guadalupe (Dec. 12, 1914)

• Law of Reform (like Benito Juarez's Laws of Reform)

• Roque Gonzales Garza

• Supported by Zapatistas as president

• Pancho Villa

• Claimed to be leader from Chihuahua

• No-one recognized money or legal contracts of the others

BATTLE OF CELAYA (Apr. 6-15, 1915)

• Forces under Pancho Villa

• Badly defeated by forces under Obregon troops supporting Carranza

• Carranza became political leader of Mexico

• Zapata and Villa retreated - but remained threats

• US supported Constitutionalists (Carranza) (official in Oct. 1915)

• ​Pancho Villa angry about US support of Carranza and killed Americans

PANCHO VILLA

• Jan. 9, 1916 Killed American civilians in Santa Isabel (Chihuahua)

• Mar. 9, 1916 terrorized town of Columbus, New Mexico, killed 18

• Screamed "Viva Villa! Muerte a los Gringos!

• Woodrow Wilson sent General John Pershing to find Pancho Villa

• 6,000 US troops to Mexico ($130 million)

• No help from locals who yelled "Viva Villa!"

• First Chief Carranza ordered Pershing to withdraw

• Didn't withdraw until Jan. 1917

VENUSTIANO CARRANZA (r. 1915-1920)

• Bio

• Conservative from a rich, northern landowning family

• Primer Jefe (First Chief) of the Constitutionalists

• Head of State 1915-1917, President 1917-1920

• Promulgated 1917 Constitution (but didn't enforce it)

• Current constitution of Mexico

• Drafted in Queretaro by a constituent convention

• Successor to Constitution of 1857

• Freedoms

• Freedom to petition, assembly, bear arms, right to privacy, freedom of religion

• Criminal rights

• Habeas corpus, innocent until proven guilty, right to remain silent, lawyer, no cruel punishments or excessive fines, no double jeopardy, victims rights

• Article 3

• All people have right to free, secular, mandatory education

• Article 27

• Agrarian changes based on Zapata's Plan de Ayala

• Land seized illegally from peasantry during Porfiriato to be restored

• "Private property is a privilege created by the nation"

• Nation can restrict private property for public interest and for equitable distribution of public wealth

• Article 123

• Everyone has a right to have a a job.

• No child labor

• Minimum wage, equal pay for equal work regardless of gender, workers entitled to profit sharing

• Right to organize

• Didn't do enough

• Problems

• Worthless paper money, mining losses, wages down, industry down, communication and transportation in shambles, agricultural shortages, inflation

• Weak enforcement of Article 27

• Carranza only distributed 45,000 acres (many hacendados had more than 7 million acres)

• Land taken from political enemies

• Violation of Article 123

• Arrested leaders of workers who went on strike

• Carranza reversed gains from Huerta

• Carranza hated Huerta so much that he repudiated everything Huerta did

• Reduced teacher salaries

• restored land from communal ejidos to Porfirian owners

• Lowered budget for education from 9.9% under Huerta to .09%

• Lowered expenditures on social programs from 11.6% (1913) to 1.9% (1919)

ZIMMERMAN TELEGRAM (Jan. 19, 1917)

• From German foreign minister (Arthur Zimmerman) to Mexico

• Offered aid to Mexico to reclaim land lost during Mexican-American War

• If Mexico joined Germany in World War I

• Carranza was tempted because Germany had never taken anything from Mexico

• But turned it down

• Because he realized Germany was too bogged down in Europe to help Mexico

CARRANZA AGAINST ZAPATISTAS

• Zapata letter to "Citizen" Carranza March 1919

• "You turned the struggle to your own advantage and that of your friends who helped you rise and then shared the booty.."

• "It never occurred to you that the Revolution was fought for the benefit of the great masses..."

• Carranza sent 1000s of federal troops to Morelos under Gen. Pablo Gonzales

• Destroyed crops, burned towns and killed 1000s of civilian supporters of Zapata.

• Emiliano Zapata assassinated April 10, 1919

CARRANZA ASSASSINATED

• Carranza's term due to end Dec. 1920

• He tried to force election of Ignacio Bonillas

• Opposition by his generals

• Obregon led armed rebellion in April 1920

• Carranza fled capital to Veracruz with government records and money from the treasury

• His train was attacked, Carranza fled on horseback to mountains

• Betrayed by bodyguards and murdered May 20

ALVARO OBREGON (1920-1924)

• After Carranza's death

• Sonoran generals of the Constitutionalist Army (Obregon, Plutarco Elias Calles, Adolfo de la Huerta) dominated Mexico

• Foreign relations

• US under Harding did not recognize his government

• US demanded repeal of several articles of the Constitution of 1917 that were socialist and nationalist

• Like Article 27 which said Mexico was in direct control of everything on Mexican soil

• But Obregon considered foreign direct investment necessary to rebuild the Mexican economy after the revolution.

• US had business interests in Mexico, especially oil

• Would recognize Obregon's government

• If he guaranteed the rights of property of US citizens living in Mexico

• and its oil companies in Mexican territory

• Bucareli treaty (1923)

Plutarco Elias Calles (1924-1934)

• Bio

• Was a loyal supporter of Obregon

• Was interior minister under Obregon

• Oregon chose him as his successor

• Calles was liberal/radical

• Anticlerical

• 1924 Election

• Calles was first populist

• Called for land redistribution and promised equal justice, education, labor rights, democracy

• Fears

• Landowners (haciendados) feared they would lose their property

• Industrialists feared higher wages for their workers

• Government

• Calles became less and less tolerant and more openly dictatorial

• Relied heavily on the army to get rid of government foes

• Political prisoners filled jails (many "committed suicide")

• State atheism (1924-1926)

• Large-scale secularization

• Anti-clericalism

• Based on 1917 Mexican Constitution (anti-Catholic)

• Articles 3, 5, 24, 27, 130

• Reaction = Cristero War (see below)

• Economy

• Economic growth

• High demand for Mexican raw materials

• Calles stepped up land distribution

• Distributed 8 million acres between 1924 and 1928

• Most of the land granted to the communal ejidos rather than individuals

• To stem decline in agricultural productivity, he initiated irrigation projects, established agricultural schools and extended agricultural credit to small farmers.

• Labor

• Favored union leader Luis Moromes (brought into cabinet) and the CROM

• By 1928, CROM membership had reached 1.8 million - had a strong influence and support from the government

• Wages rose

• Reforms

• Added more than 2000 rural schools

• Concentrated on teaching Spanish to acculturate Indians

• Health and sanitation program built

• Foreign policy

• American government wanted more assurances that foreign property interests would be protected

• But Calles refused to go beyond promises made by Bucareli Treaty

• New petroleum law December 1925

• Required all oil companies apply to the government for confirmation of their concessions.

• Mexico would apply doctrine of "positive acts" as under terms of Bucareli Treaty

• Cancelled Bucareli Treaty

Cristero War (1926-1929)

• Church and State had struggled in 19th century with War of Reform

• Reaction to Articles 3, 24, 27 and 130 in Constitution ("Calles Law")

• Article 3: Educational services shall be secular

• Article 24: Every man shall be free to choose any religious belief

• Article 130: State and church are separate entities. Religious congregations shall be organized under the law.

• Which limited the power of the Roman Catholic Church

• Caused massive rural uprising supported (tacitly) by the Church

• In north-central region of Mexico

• Government made some concessions ending the conflict 1929

Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) (1929-2000)

• Formed in 1929 to consolidate reforms from 1917 Constitution

• Backed by pro-government labor unions and peasant organizations

Lazaro Cardenas (1934 - 1940)

• Reestablished the ejido system

• Which established communally shared farmland.

Nationalization

• 1937 nationalization of the railways

• 1938 expropriation of the oil industry from British and US firms

Industrialization 1950s and 60s

NAFTA 1994