- Amanda Roraback
Mexican History after Independence
Spain under Napoleon
Napoleon invaded Spain in 1808
Forced Bourbon Spain's king, Charles IV to abdicate
Napoleon put his brother, Joseph, in power as the Spanish king
Created crisis of legitimacy
New Spain
Peninsulares (Spanish nobles born in Spain) took over rule of New Spain
Creoles (Spanish people born in Mexico) plotted to become independent from Spain
Cry of Dolores
Miguel Hidalgo y Costillo
A Catholic priest from the village of Dolores
On Sept. 16, 1810, he issued his Grito de Dolores ("Cry of Dolores")
Which called for:
The end of Spanish rule in Mexico
Redistribution of land
Racial equality
Hidalgo gathered an army of 90,000 poor farmers
Hidalgo was captured and executed July 30, 1811
Followed by other peasant leaders
Like Vicente Guerrero
Who fought against the Spanish and Royalists
MEXICAN INDEPENDENCE (1821)
Royalist General Iturbide had originally fought for the Spanish
But after a liberal coup d'etat in Spain
Conservatives in Mexico (like Iturbide) wanted immediate independence
Collaboration at Iguala
Iturbide allied with rebel leader Vicente Guerrero's radical insurgents
Plan of Iguala (Feb. 24, 1821)
Proclaimed three guarantees
Immediate Independence from Spain
Equality for Peninsulares and Creoles
Supremacy of the Roman Catholic Church (banned all other religions)
Mexico would become an independent constitutional monarchy
Treaty of Cordoba (Aug. 24, 1821)
Granted Mexico independence
AGUSTIN DE ITURBIDE (r. 1822-23)
Iturbide, a caudillo (Mexican military chieftain) became the first president of the newly independent Mexico
After independence, Iturbide removed Guerrero
May 19, 1822, Iturbide declared himself emperor.
Ruled in an arbitrary manner, didn't bring stability
1823 Iturbide was overthrown by General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna
Iturbide fled to Italy, then England
Executed when he returned to Mexico, July 15, 1824
Provisional Government of Mexico (1823-1824)
After the fall of Iturbide, a republic was created
Called the United Mexican States
With a succession of a half dozen heads of state

ANTONIO LOPEZ DE SANTA ANNA (r. 1833-1855, 22 years of rule jwere not consecutive)
Bio
Santa Anna at first opposed Mexican independence, then changed mind.
The General who overthrew Iturbide in Mar. 19, 1823
Santa Anna drew up new constitution
Established a federal Mexican republic with 19 states and 4 territories
Ruled as president 1823-1836
Political instability (1825-1850)
National governments changed hands rapidly
Between 1825 and 1855 there were 48 different executives

TEXAS INDEPENDENCE
Battle of Alamo (Feb. 23-Mar. 6, 1836)
Battle of San Jacinto (Apr. 21, 1836)
Texas became independent from Mexico (1836)

MEXICAN-AMERICAN WAR (1846-1848)
Mexico lost California, New Mexico and Utah territories to the United States (Mexican Cession, in pink to the right)
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
And lost the last remaining piece of land in the Gadsden Purchase (in yellow to the right) of 1853 for $10 million.
Caused the Revolution of Ayutla
PLAN OF AYUTLA 1854
Plan aimed at removing Santa Anna from power
Revolution of Ayutla ousted Santa Anna in 1855
Santa Anna fled to France
LA REFORMA (1858-1860)
Second Federal Republic of Mexico
Three-year civil war
Between Liberal Party and Conservatives
Liberal Party
Ruled since 1855 under Plan of Ayutla
Based in Veracruz
Led by reformist Benito Juarez
Recognized by the US government
Conservative Party
Ruled from Mexico City
Led by Felix Zuloaga
Jan. 1861 Liberals captured Mexico City
Liberal President Benito Juarez moved administration to Mexico City
But there was still instability and a growing foreign debt.
BENITO JUAREZ (r. 1858-1862, 1867-1872)

Bio
Born to poor rural Zapotec family
Became lawyer
Government was in debt
Bankrupt treasury
Army and police force hadn't been paid
Commerce stagnant
Transportation inadequate
No currency in circulation
Juarez in 1861 ordered two-year moratorium on payment of Mexico's foreign debt
Caused Spanish, French and British governments to meet in Mexico (Oct 31, 1861)
Signed tripartite agreement (Cnvention of London) to intervene in Mexico to recover unpaid debts
Europeans landed at Veracruz Dec. 8
Conservatives saw the forces as valuable allies in struggle against Liberals.
French under Napoleon III captured Mexico City (Spanish and British withdrew)
FRENCH INTERVENTION - EMPEROR MAXIMILIAN (1862-1867)

In 1862, French Emperor Napoleon III (nephew of Napoleon I) established a French client state in Mexico
Installed Maximilian of Hapsburg as Emperor
Maximilian's conservative government controlled much of the country
But Liberals kept power in northwest and parts of Pacific coast
Under Benito Juarez
U.S. under Sec. of State Seward disapproved
But U.S. was busy in Civil War
Abraham Lincoln didn't want Mexico to help Confederacy
Mexican Resistance
Conservatives not happy with Maximilian's attempts to adopt more Liberal policies
Liberals saw Maximilian as a tool for French interests.
Cinco de Mayo (May 5, 1962)
Mexican Army defeated the French Empire at the Battle of Puebla
A year later, a larger French force defeated the Mexican Army
At the Second Battle of Pueblo
French withdrew 1867
Because of resistance (50000 Mexicans had died fighting the French)
And because the Empire was drain on French treasury
Mexico's second empire collapsed in colonial city of Queretaro
Juarez and the Republicans returned
Juarez ordered death penalty for Maximilian Oct. 1865
BENITO JUAREZ (1867-1872)
French occupation had caused growth of Mexican nationalism
But hurt economy
Treasury still empty
Commerce, industry, agriculture in shambles
Politics
Lack of strong central authority under French caused localism
Armed men in countryside
Juarez returned to Mexico City Jul. 15, 1867
Called for elections
He was voted in for 3rd term as President of the Republic
Juarez reforms
Tried to implement Constitution of 1857 and modernize Mexico
Economy
Named Matias Romero as secretary of the treasury
Romera called for improved transportation
Tax and tariff restructuring
And exploitation of natural resources by attracting foreign capital
Believed future was in mining, not industrialization
But foreign capital was difficult to get because of reputation of political instability, rebellions and bandits
Secularized Mexico
Catholic Church was barred from owning property
Except churches and monasteries
Education and marriage were now in the hands of the state
Army and Police force
Juarez reduced Mexican army from 60,000 to 20,000 (to reduce military rule)
Funded a rural police force (rurales)
Helped the army
Patrolled roads
Guarded shipments of bullion etc.
Contributed to stabilization in the countryside.
Transportation
1873 completed Mexico City-Veracruz RR (had begun in 1937)
Work was done by the Ferrocarril Mexicano (Mexican RR Co.)
Finished work done by British
Blessed by the Archbishop (signaled improved relations between church and state)
Education
5-man commission headed by Gabino Barreda
Emphasis on arithmetic, physics, chemistry, mechanics
Primary education was free and obligatory for first time
Foreign relations
US
US had helped Mexico during Maximilian
US Sec. of State William Seward visited Mexico 1869
Election 1871
Juarez's popularity had been declining
Juarez v. two other liberals
Porfirio Diaz (General in war against French) (Porfiristas)
And Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada (Lerdistas)
Had backing of professional classes and wealthy
No majorities so contest went to Congress.
Juarez reelected.
Diaz proclaimed Revolt of La Noria to oust Juarez
Juarez died July 19, 1872 (coronary seizure)
New election
Lerdo defeated Diaz
SEBASTIAN LERDO DE TEJADA
Juarez succeeded by Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada
Lerdo wanted peace through strong executive control
Liberalism became centralized and dictatorial
Kept many Juaristas in government (including Romero)
Railroad and telegraph
Used rurales to patrol Mexico-City-Veracruz RR
New line from Mexico City to border of US by Central Railroad of Mexico
Goal - to connect all the state capitals to Mexico City via telegraph
Education
1870-1871 number of schools doubled
But still only 1 of 19 school-age children (few were female)
Government
Lerdo added a Senate to the formerly unicameral Legislature
He believed the elite Senate could help him centralize
Lerdo de Tejado was overthrown in a coup 1876
By Porfirio Diaz - Plan de Tuxtepec
Which established no re-election of the president
PORFIRIO DIAZ (r. 1876-1880, 1884-1911)
Improved economy
When Diaz came to power
There was an empty treasury
Long list of foreign debts
Huge bureaucracy who were behind on salaries
Balance of trade problems
Nearly impossible to get foreign capital
Rich wouldn't invest
Diaz changes
Diaz reduced his salary and ordered reduction of govt. employee salaries
1000s of useless bureaucratic jobs eliminated
Prevented smuggling through tough government policy
After end of his first term
Diaz stepped down as per Plan de Tuxtepec
To show world that Mexico had matured politically
Supported Manuel Gonzalez
MANUEL GONZALES presidency (1880-1884)
Controversial presidency
Gonzalez overextended government subsidies which left him with insufficient funds
Rather than default on foreign debts
Gonzales stopped paying salaries of many government officials
Rumors of graft and corruption
Illegally selling contracts
Selling government property cheaply to favorites
Stealing from the treasury
Sex scandals
DIAZ'S SECOND TERM (1884-1911)
Ruled as dictator
Passed legislative reforms that allowed him to stay in office for 32 years
All power remained in executive branch
Legislative branch and Supreme Court had no power
Diaz's appointees ran local and state governments
Public safety
Dedicated to rule of law and suppression of violence
Suppressed banditry
Economy - Mexico entered modern age
Diaz welcomed foreign investment and trade
Economy grew at annual rate of 2.3%
Money from foreigner film crews
Lowered foreign debt
Foreigners flocked to Mexico to get jobs
They were treated better than local Mexicans
Court cases always favored foreigners
Foreign policy
Three new Mexican consulates opened along border with US
New Department of Foreign Relations 1910
Modernized Mexico (with new revenue)
Mining
Revived mining with new mining code 1884
No mention of traditional Hispanic jurisprudence
Owners of land controlled all the bituminous and mineral fuels
New code attracted US and European investors in 1880s and 1890s
Brought modern machinery
New mining development (1880-1890) initiated by foreigners
Sierra Mojada, Batopilas and El Boleo
El Boleo (owned Fr. and Ger.) = one of richest copper mining areas in N. America
Cyanide = easier mining
Gold, silver
Foreign investors: especially American Daniel Guggenheim and his brothers and Colonel William Greene
Improved infrastructure
Improved railways (could be used to send troops to quell rebellions)
Improved telegraph and telephone system
Dept. of Communications and Public works coordinated installation of cables
Electric tramways connected Mexico City to suburbs
Modernized army
Reduced army from 30-20,000 people
Saw army as a potential threat
Hydroelectric-generating stations
Health and sanitation
Diaz hired British firm to deal with drainage problems in Mexico City
Public buildings
To improve Mexico's image abroad
Boulevards, parks, public buildings, monuments, statues
New penitentiary 1900
$3 million post office 1907
New asylum
New buildings celebrated with festivals
Problems
Diaz gave political favors to the very wealthy and ignored the poor
Economic crisis - prices doubled from 1900 to 1910
Political crisis
Middle classes wanted representation, greater freedoms, liberalism
Diaz (in his 70s) had not decided on a successor
Local autonomy disappearing
Social crisis
Communal lands were being replaced by haciendas because of exports
Villages saw land and political autonomy disappearing
Feared rurales and intimidation by local hacendados and jefes politicos
Diplomatic crisis with US
Dictatorship
Diaz used military to force compliance and administer the country
Diaz spent 1/4 of the budget on military establishment (believed it was important for forced peace)
Military dominated state governorship and the 300 jefe politicos (local political bosses)
Convergence of crises
Led to 10-year Civil War - 2 million casualties (1/8 population killed)
REVOLUTIONARIES
Discontent over Diaz abuses turned into new desire for social reform
Wistano Luis Orozco
Concerned with social issues
1895 criticized Diaz land laws
Said "large accumulation of land in a single hand causes ruin and degradation"
Revolutionaries gathered in San Antonio, Texas -- then St. Louis Missouri
Flores Magon brothers
Camilo Arriaga
And benefactor, Francisco I. Madera
Published weekly magazine called the Regeneracion
Smuggled into Mexico
In 1906 the junta published its Liberal Plan
Freedom of speech
Freedom of press
Suppression of jefe politicos
Secularization of education
Nationalization of Church property
No more death penalty
Educational reforms for poor
Prison reform (rehabilittion)
8-hour workday/6 day week
No more tienda de raya (pasmen in legal tender)
No more child labor
All uncultivated lands to be taken over by the state and redistributed to people who would work them.
MEXICAN REVOLUTION 1910-1921
Long-term causes
Continued caste and class system (holdover from Spanish era)
Diaz's oppressive 31-year rule
No freedom of speech or assembly
Diaz favored wealthy landowners and industrialists
1910 Election
In 1908 Dias had said he welcomed democratization in Mexico
Suggested he would not run a 7th term
Diaz proclamations opened way for Francisco I. Madero
Wealthy landowner from Coahuila
But Diaz changed his mind and decided to run for re-election
To eliminate the competition, Diaz had Madero jailed
Madero escaped from jail and fled to Laredo, Texas
Porfirio Diaz won through rigged election
Plan of San Luis Potosi (Oct. 5, 1910)
Written by Madero In San Antonio, Texas
Called for end of Diaz's authoritarian presidency
Restoration of democracy
And Mexicans to revolt Nov. 20, 1910
Series of revolts
Diaz was forced to resign May 1911
He fled in exile to Paris with most of his family
His nephew, Felix Diaz, stayed in Mexico
Interim government installed
Under Leon de la Barra (May-Nov. 1911)
Who kept many of Diaz's people in government
FRANCISCO I. MADERO Presidency (1911-1913)
Madero bio
Born in Coahuila in 1873
Wealthy family
Went to school in Paris and Berkeley, California
Was in charge of his families haciendas
But became interested in the welfare of the peones who worked them
Supported the Flores Magon brothers
Until they became too radical
Wrote "La Sucesion Presidencial en 1910" saying that Diaz should be challenged and that Mexico needed democracy.
New elections October 1, 1911
Madero won as an "Anti-re-electionist"
Committed to constitutional democracy, rule of law, separation of powers
Also planned to breakup large estates (didn't do it)
Gave positions of power to his family
Began to lose support
Revolts against Madero
Nov. 1911
Emiliano Zapata and Zapatistas revolted in Morelos (south)
Zapata formed Liberation Army of the South
And issued Plan de Ayala
Called for redistribution of lands to the peasants
Zapata drove Madero's forces (led by Victoriano Huerto) out of Morelos
Through scorched-earth policy
Zapatistas were contained but not suppressed
Mar. 1912
Pascual Orozco (Orozquistas) and Pancho Villa revolted in Chihuahua
Accused Madero of ignoring the Plan of San Luis Potosi and permitting corruption.
Orozco demanded
10-hour workday
Restrictions on child labor
Better working conditions
Higher wages
Suppression of tiendas de raya (company stores)
All railroads nationalized and operated by Mexicans
And uncultivated land distributed to landless farmers
Orozco not popular outside of Chihuahua
Put down by General Victoriano Huerto
But leaders escaped
Pancho Villa became governor of Chihuahua 1913 and 1914
Oct. 1912
Unsuccessful attempt to overthrow Madero
By Diaz's nephew, Felix Diaz (in Veracruz) and Bernardo Reyes (Nuevo Leon)
Unsuccessful: Felix Diaz and Reyes sentenced to life in prison (Mexico City)
US Ambassador Henry Lane Wilson
Representing President William Howard Taft
Tried to undermine Madero's administration
TEN TRAGIC DAYS (Decena Tragica) (Feb. 9-Feb. 19, 1913)
Rebels demanded release of Gen. Felix Diaz and Bernardo Reyes
Both released
Reyes was killed, along with 400 others.
Madero named General Victoriano Huerta to command his troops
Mexico City in chaos
Artillery fire, burning cars, looters
Belen prison burst open (100s of inmates)
1000s of civilian casualties
Pact of the Embassy (Feb. 18, 1913)
Victoriano Huerta (Madero's key general) decided to change sides
Huerta sent General Aureliano Blanquet to National Palace to arrest Madero, VP and cabinet
Called the Pact of the Embassy
General Felix Diaz and Victoriano Huerta met at U.S embassy
Negotiated under aegis of U.S. ambassador in Mexico City - Henry Lane Wilson
In era of "Dollar Diplomacy"
Madero and VP (Pino Suarez) were forced to resign
New president
Foreign Minister Pedro Lascurain sworn in as interim president according to line of succession
Lascurain appointed General Huerta Secretary of Interior (next in line of succession)
Then Lascurain resigned less than an hour later
According to Constitution of 1857, presidency passed to Sec. of Interior (Huerta)
Madero and Suarez murdered Feb. 22, 1913
While being transported to a penitentiary
VICTORIANO HUERTA (1913-1914)

Huerta became president in a coup Feb. 1913
Appointed by Lascurain as Sec. of Interior
Lascurain resigned minutes later
Huerta became president
Domestic reforms
Raised budget for education
Porfirio Diaz 7.2%, Madero 7.8%, Huerta 9.9%
Curriculum added history, literature and philosophy
Not just science and math
Agriculture
Distributed free seeds
Expanded agricultural schools in Mexico City
Restored 78 ejidos (areas of communal land) to Yaqui and Sonora Indians
Commissioned Eduardo Tamariz (Sec. of Agriculture) to study problem of land redistribution
Nothing in Constitution of 1857
Solution - raise taxes on large haciendas - less profitable --> sale
No social mobility for masses
Huerta's presidency challenged by forces in north and south
NORTH (CONSTITUTIONALISTS)
Venustiano Carranza, Alvaro Obregon and Francisco "Pancho" Villa
Carranza
From rich, landowning family in Coahuila
Proclaimed Plan of Guadalupe
Denouncing Huerta and proposing restoration of constitutional govt.
Carranza was "First Chief" (Primer Jefe) of Constitutionalist Army
No mention of social reforms
Obregon wanted to be neutral but joined Carranza
Pancho Villa
SOUTH (ZAPATISTAS)
By Emiliano Zapata
Like northerners, he wanted to get rid of Huerta
But also wanted to restore village lands, so didn't join northerners
Supported Plan de Ayala

CIVIL WAR (1914-1915)
Civil War
Constitutionalists won victories in north
Huerta became dictatorial
Turned whole country into war effort
Railroads for military use only
Federal army increased to 250,000 (12x as under Diaz)
Forced conscription of poor and illiterate
Huerta became dictatorial
Press censorship
Spies
Political prisoners
Political assassinations (Madero, Suarez, Belisario Dominguez)
Dissolved the Legislature
Economy in shambles
Workforce depleted by Huerta
No pickers for cotton, coffee beans, sugarcane
Mines closed
Cattle slaughtered for soldiers
Transportation delays for food and manufactured goods
Currency
Government printed paper money not backed by gold or silver
Constitutionalists and Zapatistas also printed their own currency
So did local regions
25 different kinds of paper currency in circulation
Lots of counterfeiters
UNITED STATES INVOLVEMENT IN MEXICO
U.S. under Woodrow Wilson refused to recognize Huerta
Because he was not elected democratically
Even though Henry Lane Wilson had tried to encourage US to recognize Huerta
Ambassador Henry Lane Wilson recalled
Replaced by John Lind (who didn't speak Spanish)
Lind reports inaccurate, bellicose, anti-Catholic
US supported Constitutionalists
Occupation of Veracruz
Pres. Woodrow Wilson beefed up US fleet in Mexican waters
Some Americans from USS Dolphin came to Mexican shore for supplies (gas)
Were arrested
Mexico officially apologized
But Rear Admiral Mayo wanted
US flag on shore
And 21-gun salute
Mexico said okay if US also gave 21-gun salute to Mexican flag
US refused because it would be like recognition of Huerta
US Marines took Veracruz
Led to anti-American outcry in Mexico (including from the Constitutionalists)
Loss of Veracruz meant no revenue from customhouse
Anti-Huerta forces
Huerta's troops show of force against Americans
Allowed Constitutionalists in north and Zapatistas in South to move into military vacuum
Huerta resigned Jul. 8, 1914
Because of diplomatic, economic and military pressure
HUERTA SURRENDERED
Huerta's forces surrendered (Aug 15, 1914)
Recognized Constitutional government
Carranza entered Mexico City (supported by Obregon) (Aug. 20, 1914)
Passed his Plan of Guadalupe
Which named him (as First Chief of the Constitutionalist Army) as provisional governor.
CONVENTION OF AGUASCALIENTES (Oct. 10-Nov, 9, 1914)
Held to sort out power relations between the "big four" warlords
Pancho Villa, Zapata, Carranza and Obregon
Division among the revolutionaries
Villistas and Zapatistas
Fighting for land and liberty
Believed others fighting for criollos, not Indians
Favored agrarian Plan de Ayala
Carrancistas and Obregonistas
Fighting for political reasons
Favored Plan of San Luis Potosi
Convention elected Gen. Eulalio Gutierrez Ortiz
Against wishes of Carranza
President for 20 days
MEETING AT XOCHIMILCO (December, 1914)
Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata met
Both expressed mutual hatred of Carranza and his followers
Villa:
"Those are men who have always slept on soft pillows. How they ever be friends of the people, who have spent their whole lives in nothing but suffering?"
Zapata:
"On the contrary, they have always been the scourge of the people... Those carbines! As soon as these a little chance, well, they want to take advantage of it and line their own pockets! Well, to hell with them!"
Alliance was short-lived
Zapata to Morelos
Villa to north
POLITICAL CHAOS (early 1915)
President Gutierrez
Abandoned Mexico City to Nuevo Leon
Obregon
Took Mexico City
Carranza (Constitutionalists)
Claimed to be ruler from Veracruz
Carranza's Additions to the Plan of Guadalupe (Dec. 12, 1914)
Law of Reform (like Benito Juarez's Laws of Reform)
Roque Gonzales Garza
Supported by Zapatistas as president
Pancho Villa
Claimed to be leader from Chihuahua
No-one recognized money or legal contracts of the others
BATTLE OF CELAYA (Apr. 6-15, 1915)
Forces under Pancho Villa
Badly defeated by forces under Obregon troops supporting Carranza
Carranza became political leader of Mexico
Zapata and Villa retreated - but remained threats
US supported Constitutionalists (Carranza) (official in Oct. 1915)
Pancho Villa angry about US support of Carranza and killed Americans
PANCHO VILLA
Jan. 9, 1916 Killed American civilians in Santa Isabel (Chihuahua)
Mar. 9, 1916 terrorized town of Columbus, New Mexico, killed 18
Screamed "Viva Villa! Muerte a los Gringos!
Woodrow Wilson sent General John Pershing to find Pancho Villa
6,000 US troops to Mexico ($130 million)
No help from locals who yelled "Viva Villa!"
First Chief Carranza ordered Pershing to withdraw
Didn't withdraw until Jan. 1917
VENUSTIANO CARRANZA (r. 1915-1920)
Bio
Conservative from a rich, northern landowning family
Primer Jefe (First Chief) of the Constitutionalists
Head of State 1915-1917, President 1917-1920
Promulgated 1917 Constitution (but didn't enforce it)
Current constitution of Mexico
Drafted in Queretaro by a constituent convention
Successor to Constitution of 1857
Freedoms
Freedom to petition, assembly, bear arms, right to privacy, freedom of religion
Criminal rights
Habeas corpus, innocent until proven guilty, right to remain silent, lawyer, no cruel punishments or excessive fines, no double jeopardy, victims rights
Article 3
All people have right to free, secular, mandatory education
Article 27
Agrarian changes based on Zapata's Plan de Ayala
Land seized illegally from peasantry during Porfiriato to be restored
"Private property is a privilege created by the nation"
Nation can restrict private property for public interest and for equitable distribution of public wealth
Article 123
Everyone has a right to have a a job.
No child labor
Minimum wage, equal pay for equal work regardless of gender, workers entitled to profit sharing
Right to organize
Didn't do enough
Problems
Worthless paper money, mining losses, wages down, industry down, communication and transportation in shambles, agricultural shortages, inflation
Weak enforcement of Article 27
Carranza only distributed 45,000 acres (many hacendados had more than 7 million acres)
Land taken from political enemies
Violation of Article 123
Arrested leaders of workers who went on strike
Carranza reversed gains from Huerta
Carranza hated Huerta so much that he repudiated everything Huerta did
Reduced teacher salaries
restored land from communal ejidos to Porfirian owners
Lowered budget for education from 9.9% under Huerta to .09%
Lowered expenditures on social programs from 11.6% (1913) to 1.9% (1919)
ZIMMERMAN TELEGRAM (Jan. 19, 1917)
From German foreign minister (Arthur Zimmerman) to Mexico
Offered aid to Mexico to reclaim land lost during Mexican-American War
If Mexico joined Germany in World War I
Carranza was tempted because Germany had never taken anything from Mexico
But turned it down
Because he realized Germany was too bogged down in Europe to help Mexico
CARRANZA AGAINST ZAPATISTAS
Zapata letter to "Citizen" Carranza March 1919
"You turned the struggle to your own advantage and that of your friends who helped you rise and then shared the booty.."
"It never occurred to you that the Revolution was fought for the benefit of the great masses..."
Carranza sent 1000s of federal troops to Morelos under Gen. Pablo Gonzales
Destroyed crops, burned towns and killed 1000s of civilian supporters of Zapata.
Emiliano Zapata assassinated April 10, 1919
CARRANZA ASSASSINATED
Carranza's term due to end Dec. 1920
He tried to force election of Ignacio Bonillas
Opposition by his generals
Obregon led armed rebellion in April 1920
Carranza fled capital to Veracruz with government records and money from the treasury
His train was attacked, Carranza fled on horseback to mountains
Betrayed by bodyguards and murdered May 20
ALVARO OBREGON (1920-1924)
After Carranza's death
Sonoran generals of the Constitutionalist Army (Obregon, Plutarco Elias Calles, Adolfo de la Huerta) dominated Mexico
Foreign relations
US under Harding did not recognize his government
US demanded repeal of several articles of the Constitution of 1917 that were socialist and nationalist
Like Article 27 which said Mexico was in direct control of everything on Mexican soil
But Obregon considered foreign direct investment necessary to rebuild the Mexican economy after the revolution.
US had business interests in Mexico, especially oil
Would recognize Obregon's government
If he guaranteed the rights of property of US citizens living in Mexico
and its oil companies in Mexican territory
Bucareli treaty (1923)
Plutarco Elias Calles (1924-1934)
Bio
Was a loyal supporter of Obregon
Was interior minister under Obregon
Oregon chose him as his successor
Calles was liberal/radical
Anticlerical
1924 Election
Calles was first populist
Called for land redistribution and promised equal justice, education, labor rights, democracy
Fears
Landowners (haciendados) feared they would lose their property
Industrialists feared higher wages for their workers
Government
Calles became less and less tolerant and more openly dictatorial
Relied heavily on the army to get rid of government foes
Political prisoners filled jails (many "committed suicide")
State atheism (1924-1926)
Large-scale secularization
Anti-clericalism
Based on 1917 Mexican Constitution (anti-Catholic)
Articles 3, 5, 24, 27, 130
Reaction = Cristero War (see below)
Economy
Economic growth
High demand for Mexican raw materials
Calles stepped up land distribution
Distributed 8 million acres between 1924 and 1928
Most of the land granted to the communal ejidos rather than individuals
To stem decline in agricultural productivity, he initiated irrigation projects, established agricultural schools and extended agricultural credit to small farmers.
Labor
Favored union leader Luis Moromes (brought into cabinet) and the CROM
By 1928, CROM membership had reached 1.8 million - had a strong influence and support from the government
Wages rose
Reforms
Added more than 2000 rural schools
Concentrated on teaching Spanish to acculturate Indians
Health and sanitation program built
Foreign policy
American government wanted more assurances that foreign property interests would be protected
But Calles refused to go beyond promises made by Bucareli Treaty
New petroleum law December 1925
Required all oil companies apply to the government for confirmation of their concessions.
Mexico would apply doctrine of "positive acts" as under terms of Bucareli Treaty
Cancelled Bucareli Treaty
Cristero War (1926-1929)
Church and State had struggled in 19th century with War of Reform
Reaction to Articles 3, 24, 27 and 130 in Constitution ("Calles Law")
Article 3: Educational services shall be secular
Article 24: Every man shall be free to choose any religious belief
Article 130: State and church are separate entities. Religious congregations shall be organized under the law.
Which limited the power of the Roman Catholic Church
Caused massive rural uprising supported (tacitly) by the Church
In north-central region of Mexico
Government made some concessions ending the conflict 1929
Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) (1929-2000)
Formed in 1929 to consolidate reforms from 1917 Constitution
Backed by pro-government labor unions and peasant organizations
Lazaro Cardenas (1934 - 1940)
Reestablished the ejido system
Which established communally shared farmland.
Nationalization
1937 nationalization of the railways
1938 expropriation of the oil industry from British and US firms
Industrialization 1950s and 60s
NAFTA 1994