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Revolutions
TIMELINE
1756 -1763 - Seven Years War/French and Indian War
1774 - British colonists in North America create Constitutional Congress after Intolerable Acts
1776 - American Declaration of Independence (written by Jefferson)
1783 - End of American Revolution, U.S. is independent
1787 - U.S. Constitution written
1789 - Storming of the Bastille in Paris (official beginning of French Revolution)
Louis XVI becomes constitutional monarch
1791 - Haitian slave revolt under Voodoo priest Boukman
1792 - France declares war on Austria and Prussia
1792 - France becomes a republic (Year 1 in new French calendar)
1793 - France declares war on Spain, Britain and Netherlands
France declares universal manhood suffrage
Louis XVI guillotined, Robespierre and radical Jacobins take over.
1794 - More than 40,000 "counter-revolutionaries" killed in France, French outlaw slavery in Haiti
1795 - Directory set up France after Robespierre is executed (lasts until 1799)
1797 - Toussaint Louverture controls most of Saint-Domingue
1799 - Napoleon overthrow the Directory and becomes First Consul, then Consul for life
1801 - Toussaint Louverture creates Haitian constitution with equality and citizenship to all residents
1802 - Napoleon crowns himself emperor.
Napoleon sends troops to restore Fr. authority in Saint-Domingue, troops die of yellow fever
1803 - Dessaline declares Saint Domingue an independent republic
1804 - Saint-Domingue is renamed "Haiti"
1807 - Napoleon fights Peninsular War with Spain and Portugal
Portuguese court flees to Brazil
1810 - Mexican revolt under Father Hidalgo
May Revolution in Argentina led by Jose de San Martin
1811 - Simon Bolivar fights Spanish with army of Creoles
1812 - Napoleon's army is defeated in Russia
1814 - Napoleon is exiled in Elba
1815 - Napoleon is defeated again in Waterloo , exiled to St. Helena
1819 - Simon Bolivar becomes president of Gran Colombia (until 1830)
1821 - Mexico becomes indpendent under Iturbide Brazil becomes independent from Portugal
1822 - Iturbide becomes emperor of Mexico (until 1823)
Son of King Joao of Portugal becomes King Pedro I of Brazil (until 1834)
1823 - Mexico becomes a republic after Iturbide is overthrown
1825 - Southern Mexico declares independence from north, becomes Central American Federation.
1830 - Gran Colombia breaks apart (New Granada/Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador)
1838 - Southern Mexico splits into independent states
(Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica)
1898 - Spain loses last colonies (Cuba, Puerto Rico, Philippines, Guam) after Spanish-American War
1903 - Panama becomes independent from Colombia with U.S. help
SEVEN YEARS WAR (see link)
Fought mostly between British and French
World war fought in many places
North America (called the "French and Indian War")
India (France and Britain)
Europe (Prussia, Russia, Spain, Britain and France)
Caribbean
West Africa
Philippines
North American part of the war called "French and Indian War"
Consequences
British East India Company dominated India (South Asia) after French companies defeated
French kicked out of North America (except Haiti)
New France divided between British and Spanish
British in debt after the war (leads to change in policy in the 13 colonies)
AMERICAN REVOLUTION (1775-1783)
See link.
13 British colonies
Navigation Acts
Colonists had to trade certain items (tobacco, cotton etc.) only through Britain (mercantilism)
Salutary neglect
As long as trade continued, British stayed out of colonial affairs
French and Indian War (North American part of Seven Years War) (1756-1763)
British and colonists defeat French
New France is divided between Spain and Britain
Consequences of Seven Years War
Ended period of "Salutary Neglect"
Quartering Act (colonists had to house soldiers)
British impose taxes on North American colonists
Sugar Act, Stamp Act, Townshend Act, Tea Act
Colonists reacted
Against "taxation without representation"
Colonists in Massachusetts reacted to Tea Act with Boston Tea Party (1773)
By throwing British tea in Boston Harbor
British passed Intolerable Acts to punish Massachussetts
Closing Boston Harbor, ending self-government in Massachusetts for example
First Continental Congress 1774
Colonists joined together to protest taxes and Intolerable Acts
British sent troops to Lexington and Concord to confiscate weapons and arrest revolutionaries
Second Continental Congress 1775
Colonists created a Continental Army led by George Washington
Inspired by Enlightenment ideas of John Locke, colonists declared independence from Britain July 4, 1776
The American Revolution (1775-1783)
British advantages:
Strong government, strong navy, more money
American advantages:
Fighting on home turf, George Washington's leadership
French (under Louis XVI) joined colonists against British
To avenge their loss in French and Indian War
Weary of a costly conflict, British forces surrendered in 1781 at Yorktown
Constitutional Convention, 1787
New American constitution guaranteed freedom of press, of speech, and of religion
American republic based on principles of equality, popular sovereignty
Full legal and political rights were granted to men of property
FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1799)
Causes
French debt
Debt from wars (including helping Americans)
Taxes only collected from Third Estate
1/2 of French governments revenue went to paying off debts
Price of Bread
Droughts caused price of bread to soar - some families spent 80% of their salary on bread
Enlightenment
Challenging authority, freedoms, rational thinking, secularism
Inspired by American Revolution
Rigid social structure
Three Estates: Clergy, Nobility and Third Estate (everyone else)
Third Estate = bourgeoisie (middle class), workers, peasants
Estates General
King Louis XVI called an Estates General to change the taxation system
Each Estate represented by one vote (gave 1st and 2nd Estates the advantage)
Third Estate decided to form their own government, the National Assembly
When Third Estate was locked out of the meetings, they moved to the Tennis Court vowing to create a constitution based on popular sovereignty
Storming of the Bastille (July 14, 1789)
Hearing a rumor that the King was trying to shut down the National Assembly, the commoners in Paris attacked the Bastille prison (a symbol of authoritarian power)
Sparked insurrections in other cities
"Bastille Day" is commemorated yearly in France as the formal beginning of the Revolution
"Declaration of Rights of Man and the Citizen"
Preamble to France's new constitution written with help from Jefferson
Women, like Olympe de Gouges, complained that rights were not extended to women.
"Liberty, equality and fraternity" - became slogan of the Revolution
National Assembly abolished the feudal system, altered the role of the church.
Women's march on Versailles Palace
Commoners went to Versailles demanding that the King and Queen moved back to Paris
King Louis XVI becomes a constitutional monarch
Flight to Varennes
In 1791, Louis XVI and his wife, Marie Antoinette try to flee to Austria
They are caught and forced to return to Paris
War
Prussia and Austria threatened France (Declaration of Pillnitz)
French government declared war on Prussia and Austria
The following year, France declared war on Britain, Spain and the Netherlands
European nations invade France to restore the ancien régime (old order)
Republic
Inspired by victories in war and Enlightenment
Sept 22, 1792, France became a republic
Declared universal manhood suffrage
King and Queen were jailed
Revolution turned radical
Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette executed by guillotine in 1793
Radical Jacobins led by Maximilien Robespierre dominated the National Assembly
"Reign of terror" instituted -- more than 40,000 "counterrevolutionaries" executed.
Revolutionary changes
Price of bread controlled
Population wore "revolutionary" clothing and cockades
Calendar and clocks changed
"Year One" = establishment of Republic
Weeks = 10 days, hours = 100 minutes etc.
All churches closed, replaced by "Cult of Reason"
Women won some rights (for example, divorce by mutual consent)
Revolution "eats its own children"
Robespierre was finally arrested and executed July 1794
Jacobins and other radicals were arrested
More conservative middle class Frenchmen take over.
The Directory, 1795-1799
A conservative reaction against the excesses of the Convention
New constitution is written, ending controls on price of bread for instance
NAPOLEON (r. 1799-1815)
Bio
Born in Corsica
Married Josephine, a creole widow and mother.
Napoleon's first military campaign was against the Austrians in Italy in 1798 (under Directory)
Then he went to Egypt
Egypt
Napoleon easily beat the Mamelukes in Egypt in the Battle of the Pyramids 1798
In Egypt, Napoleon's team of scientists found the Rosetta Stone
Written in Greek, hieroglyphics and demotic (simplified hieroglyphics)
Helped Europeans decipher Egyptian hieroglyphics
Consulate (1799-1804)
In 1799, Napoleon returned to France and overthrew the Directory
He became "consul for life"
Brought stability back to France after years of chaos
Made peace with the Roman Catholic Church and Pope Pius VII (Concordat of 1801)
Freedom of religion to Protestants (Huguenots) and Jews
Emperor (1804-1814)
In 1804 Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of France
Civil Code of 1804
Restricted individual freedom, especially speech and press
Ignored elective bodies
Surrounded himself with loyal military officers who ensured that representative assemblies did not restrict his authority
Political and legal equality for all adult men
Merit-based society
Protected private property
Allowed aristocrats to return and regain some property
Restored patriarchal authority
Women lost some rights
French civil law
Used in Quebec, Netherlands, Italy, Spain, some Latin American republics, Louisiana
War
Dominated the European continent: Iberia (Spain and Portugal), Italy, Netherlands
Defeated Austria and Prussia
Fought British on high seas (but lost Battle of Trafalgar against Horatio Nelson)
Peninsular War (1808-1814)
Against Spain and Portugal
Portuguese royal family fled to Brazil
Napoleon's brother, Joseph, installed as King of Spain
Disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812 in winter destroyed Napoleon's Grand Army
The fall of Napoleon
Forced by coalition of enemies to abdicate in 1814, exiled on Elba
Congress of Vienna
Hundred Days
Escaped, returned to France, raised army, but was defeated by British in 1815
Exiled to St. Helena
HAITIAN REVOLUTION (1791-1804)
The Haitian Revolution = the only successful slave revolt in history
Geography
France had lost its North American colonies in the French and Indian War (see map above)
Saint-Domingue (future Haiti) was a rich French colony on western Hispaniola (eastern part was Spanish Santo Domingo)
In the Caribbean
Population
White settlers (dominated)
French colonial officials (European born Frenchmen)
Dominated colonial administrative posts
Wealthy plantation owners
Minor aristocrats who hope to return to France quickly
Lower class whites
Artisans, shopkeepers, slave dealers, merchants
Poor immigrants
All sought self-governance/independence from France, republican government
But opposed freedom for gens de couleurs
Gens de couleur libre (free black people)
Had same legal status as whites
Could own property live where they wanted
And have an education and career.
But from 1760s onward, colonial administrators began taking these rights away.
By French Revolution, free blacks were ruled by discriminatory laws
Wanted to be equal to Europeans
Slaves (90% of population, 500,000)
Worked under brutal conditions in sugar fields
Slavery regulated under 1685 Code Noir (Black Code
Maroons - escaped slaves who set up communities in the hills.
Civil War/First stage of rebellion May 1791
National Assembly in France granted political rights to free people of color born to two free parents who had sufficient property
Caused fury among white elite - government refused to enact it.
Caused violence between white settlers and gens de couleur.
Second stage of rebellion
Expanded when
Vodou hougan (priest) and maroon leader, Dutty Boukman, organized slave revolt
Slave revolt began August 1791.
Factions of white settlers, gens de couleur, and slaves battled each other
12,000 slaves began killing white settlers (burning homes etc.) – then 100,000 slaves.
Many slaves veterans of wars in Africa.
French troops arrived in 1792
British and Spanish forces intervened in 1793
British, Spanish forces interned 1793 (trying to benefit)
Boukman died.
But slaves overcame white settlers, gens de couleur and foreign armies.
Because of Francois Dominque Toussaint (Louverture 1791)
Toussaint Louverture (1744-1803)
Bio
Son of slaves, literate, skilled organizer, (livestock overseer)
Planted coffee on leased land with rented slaves.
Free since 1776
Helped masters escape in 1791 during slave rebellion, then joined rebellion.
Built a strong and disciplined army
Initially joined Spanish when they entered war against French.
Then to French side when France abolished slavery (1794)
By 1797 Louverture led an army of 20,000
And controlled most of Saint-Domingue
Created a constitution in 1801
Granted equality and citizenship to all residents
Stopped short of declaring independence form France
Because didn’t want to provoke Napoleon into attacking.
Napoleon
1802 Napoleon sent 40,000 French troops to restore French authority
Toussaint tried to negotiated
But arrested and jail (maltreatment)
Arrested by French troops; died in jail, 1803
The Republic of Haiti
Yellow fever ravaged French troops;
defeated and driven out by slave armies
Haiti Declared independence in 1803;
established the Republic of Haiti (“land of mountains”) in 1804
Second independent republic in western hemisphere.
Napoleon sold Louisiana to U.S. for $15 million
LATIN AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE
Hierarchy
Peninsulares (30,000) -Spanish/Portuguese born in Spain/Portugal (Iberian Peninsula)
Peninsulares acted as colonial official governing the region
Creoles (3.5 million) - White, Spanish people born in the New World
Creoles lived on plantations or ranches or participated in trade
Greivances
Like Americans in the British colonies they resented economic regulations by Spain
They wanted to displace Peninsulares but keep their privileged positions
Didn't want equality like Haiti or Robespierre's France
They wanted lower taxes and participated in tax revolts (like Americans)
They wanted political independence (like Americans)
Between 1810 and 1823, the Creoles brought independence to al Spanish colonies
except Cuba and Puerto Rico which remained in Spanish hands until the Spanish-American War in 1898
Mestizos (mixed Spanish and Indian)
Indigenous people (10 million)
Mulattoes (mixed black people and white)
Slaves (in Brazil, slaves made up the majority of the population)
Battles for Independence in Latin America
Napoleon's invasion of Spain in 1807 weakened royal control of colonies
1810 revolts against Spanish rule
In Argentina, Venezuela and Mexico
Between 1810-1823 – Creoles brought independence to all Spanish colonies
Except Cuba and Puerto Rico
MEXICAN INDEPENDENCE
Peasant revolt in Mexico (1810)
Led by Hidalgo, (Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla)
Rallied indigenous people and mestizos against colonial rule
Seen as social and economic warfare by the masses against the elites of Mexican society
Particularly since Hidalgo rallied people to his cause by invoking the name of Virgin of Guadalupe
Symbol of Mexican independence (Sept. 16 1810) (Mexico’s primary holiday)
1810 Rebellion was defeated by conservative creoles
Colonial rule ended 1821
When creole general Augustine de Iturbide declared independence
Then declared himself emperor in 1822.
1821: Mexico briefly a military dictatorship,
Creole elites deposed Iturbide
Established a republic 1823
Southern Mexico 1825
South declared independence
Formed a Central American Federation
1838 - Split into independent states
Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica
MEXICAN REVOLUTION/CIVIL WAR (1910-1920)
Before Porfirio Diaz
Texas become independent in 1836
Mexican-American War 1846-48
Treaty of Guadeloupe Hidalgo, US gained California, New Mexico, Utah
War of the Reform (1858-1860)
French intervention in Mexico (1862-1867)
French imposed rule of Emperor Maximilian
Diaz and "Cientificos" seized power in a coup against Maximilian
Social structure
Creoles - Spanish born in Latin america - rich, landed elite
Mestizos - Mixed European and Indian, the largest group
Indian - poor
Porfirio Diaz
Bio
Was mestizo from poor state of Oaxaca
President of Mexico 1877-1880 and 1884-1911 (period called Porfiriato)
During presidency brought stability after decades of conflict.
Economy
Diaz encouraged foreign investment
Large American investment to build railroads and develop mines and pump oil
Built telegraph system and ports integrating Mexico into world circuit of trade
With trade and railroads, commercial agriculture more profitable and marketable
Large landed estates (haciendas) expanded
Porfirio regime favored landed elites over peasants
Autocratic regime (strongman)
Not a military or police state
But balance between repression and consensus
local strongmen pushed out or encouraged to be loyalists
Regular elections held - but fraudulent
Supreme Court had no power
Legislature had no power
Strong centralized state with power concentrated in Diaz
Standing army reduced from 30,000 to 20,000 people so that it wouldn't be a threat
Railroads used to send troops to quell rebellion
Discontent
Economic crisis - prices doubled between 1900 and 1910
Diaz and other ministers getting old
Rise of haciendas meant communal lands being taken over
Villages saw land and political autonomy disappearing
Diplomatic crisis with US
SIMON BOLIVAR (1783-1830)
Bio
Wealthy Creole from Venezuela
Educated abroad (Spain and France)
Where he learned Enlightenment ideas about popular sovereignty and Republicanism
Inspired by George Washington
Peninsular Wars with Napoleon 1808
Bolivar took advantage of disorder in Spain during occupation of Napoleon
Defeat of Spanish Army
Bolivar first gathered wealthy Creoles 1808
Took arms against Spanish rule in 1811
1819 army surprised and crushed Spanish army in Colombia
Then campaign in Venezuela, Ecuador and Peru
Coordinated with
Jose de San Martin in Argentina
Bernardo O’Higgins in Chile
Spanish defeated
By 1825 - Creole forces overcame Spanish armies throughout South America
Deposed Spanish rulers
Gran Colombia
Bolivar expelled Spanish
And founded first union of independent states: Gran Colombia
Included present-day Colombia (including Panama), Venezuela, Ecuador, some parts of Peru, West Guyana and northwest Brazil.
Bolivar was president 1819-1830
Break-up of Gran Colombia
By 1830 there were regional differences
Then Gran Colombia broke apart
Bolivar, disappointed, went to Europe and died there of tuberculosis
ARGENTINA
Rio de la Plata
Viceroyalty under Spanish (capital Buenos Aires)
Included present-day Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay and Uruguay
Causes of Rebellion
Ideological motive:
Inspired by American Revolution and Enlightenment ideas about popular sovereignty
Economic motive:
Spain forbade American colonies from trading with other nations. (mercantilism)
But Spain didn't produce enough goods
Anger over privileges of peninsulares.
Peninsular War (Spain v. Napoleon, 1808)
King Ferdinand VII of Spain abdicated in favor of Napoleon
Throne went to Napoleon's brother, Joseph Bonaparte
1810 May Revolution
Began Argentine War of Independence
Led by Jose de San Martin from Argentina
Fought from 1810-1818
July 9, 1816 Argentina bcame indepenent
BRAZIL
First attempt at independence
Jose Joaquim da Silva Xavier (aka "Tiradentes")
Rebellion in 1789
Rebellion was put down and Tiradentes was executed
Napoleon in Portugal (1807)
Napoleon invaded Portugal (a Br. ally) in 1807
To tighten blockade (Continental System)
Royal court (Dom João/King John VI) fled to Rio de Janeiro
Estabished a government in exile (1808)
João was warmly welcomed.
Brazil under Dom João
A number of reforms were passed
Abolished the Portuguese commercial monopoly on Brazilian trade
Opened trade to all friendly nations (mainly Britain)
Repealed laws that prohibited Brazilian manufacturing
Established a library, military academy, medical and law schools
Dom João became King of Portugal in 1816
King returned to Portugal 1821
Left his son, Dom Pedro, behind in Brazil as regent.
Relations between Portugal and Brazil after 1821
Portugal's parliament (Cortes) in Lisbon wanted to restore Brazil to dependent colonial status.
The Cortes repealed most of Dom João's reforms
Then ordered Dom Pedro to return to Europe
Pedro said "Fico" ("I am staying")
Independence
Creoles called for independence from Portugal 1822
Pedro agreed and proclaimed independence
Became Emperor Pedro I (reigned 1822-1834)
Less strife
Brazil became a nation with less strife and bloodshed than the rest of the Spanish-speaking nations of the New World
Central government was largely intact
National economy remained strong
Brazil after independence
National economy remained strong.
Wrote a liberal constitution
Which gave he emperor the power to dissolve the Chamber of Deputies, select members of the Senate, and appoint and dismiss ministers of state.
Dom Pedro loses popularity
Lost Uruguay after war with Argentina (1825-28)
Appointed few mazombos (Brazilian Creoles) to high office
Too concerned with Portuguese affairs
Promised to abolish slave trade
Pedro abdicated in 1831
Brazil didn't end slavery until 1888
INDEPENDENCE IN SOUTH AMERICA
Independence brought little social change in Latin America
Slavery coNtinued
Catholic Church dominated (allied with creoles)
Lower orders were repressed
Main beneficiaries: Creole elites
After peninsulares returned to Europe
Caudillos (strongmen)
Newly independent states gave military authority to local charismatic strongmen
COMPARISONS
REVOLUTION OR WAR OF INDEPENDENCE?
Revolutions
French Revolution and Haitian Revolutions were revolutions
Because revolutions changed society
France
Revolution brought an end to the division of society into three estates
Temporarily ended monarchy and created a republic
Although Napoleon was an emperor
And monarchy reinstated after Napoleon was defeated
Temporarily destroyed Catholic Church
Napoleon reconciled with the Catholic Pope and made Catholicism legal again.
Haiti
Ended slavery.
Wars of Independence
United States
Political structure changed
No more monarchy
First government was loose confederation of sovereign states with weak central government
1878 Constitution was written, created a federal government with popular sovereignty (vote for white men with property)
Social structure stayed the same (still had slavery)
Economy the same (except changes in trade, no more mercantilism)
CAUSES OF THE WAR
American Revolution
Taxes ("no taxation without representation)
Enlightenment (Locke, social contract)
Monarchy outdated
Colonists wanted Independence
French Revolution
Inspired by American Revolution
Taxes (Third Estate)
Enlightenment (Rousseau, "general will")
Monarchy outdated
Wanted constitutional monarchy
Then republic
Inequality
Haitian Revolution
Inspired by American Revolution
Took advantage of disorder during French Revolution
Freedom (slaves)
Independence (white people)
Inequality (gens de couleur)
Mexican Revolution
Took advantage of disorder during French Revolution
Inequality (first stage, Hidalgo)
Enlightenment (creoles)
Independence (creoles)
Brazil
Independence